Managing cultural diversity in the hospitality industry

Our environment determines our behaviors. People adopt certain communication styles, eating habits, and different modes of dressing depending on the type of social orientation. Symbols such as gestures and body language also form part of the human culture. Different people interpret symbols differently depending on their culture. As such, individual’s way of life determines how one perceives different ideas. Our way of life determines how we cope in a new environment with unfamiliar practices (D’Almeida, 2007).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Managing cultural diversity in the hospitality industry specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This paper, will discuss ways of managing culture diversity in the work place. I will highlight two cultural theories to demonstrate issues of cross-cultural differences. This paper will use a general comparative method and one example to demonstrate cultural shock. The US and Indian culture will be used in the examples. Culture shock When people are exposed to different cultures, they go through culture shock. This happens especially if individuals are not prepared to adapt to the new culture (Hall Dowling, and Welch, 2008). Individuals go through disappointments and develop unsocial behavior. This is common due to confusion and the inability to interact with others in the society (Henderson, 1994). In the hospitality industry, culture shock is more likely to be experienced because of diverse customers. Most tourists seek accommodation in hotels. Here, tourists experiences culture shock; they face different language, food, and lifestyle. Case study/ example Jimmy Steve is an employee of Sagret Hotel, one of the best restaurants in America. Last year, the management of Sagret Hotel opened a new branch in India. Because Jimmy Steve was experienced, he was transferred to India as the new manager of Sagret Hotel India branch. Jimmy Steve experienced the following problems. First, it was difficult for him to understand both verbal and non-verbal communication. This is because some gestures are interpreted differently in India from the way they are interpreted in the US. For instance, nodding the head in the US means yes to a question. In India, nodding of the head can mean yes or no. Hence, found it difficult to give clear directions to the workers who were Indians. The second challenge that Steve faced was that, he had difficulties eating the local foods. To him, the food was not appealing. He was also frustrated by different behaviors by the locals. Steve experienced very different custom and value system. He could not understand why there was discrimination based on caste system in the workplace. Steve also had issues with environment and hygiene. He was not able to understand why people would cook food next to places with sewer in the hotel.Advertising Looking for essay on cultural studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The safety of the hotel that was supposed to accommodate tourists was questionable for him. He observed that there were beggars around the hotel, which could scare away guests. He was surprised that in the hotel only women worked in the housekeeping and food departments. All waiters and cooks were women while men worked as cashiers and supervisors. Steve was told that it was taboo for men to cook since that was a job for women. Cross-cultural Theory In the hospitality industry, cross-cultural issues may be experienced because this sector receives customers from different regions. Dr. Milton Bennett argues that the more an individual encounters cultural differences, the more likely a person will become more competent working across cultures (Ward, 1999). People, who become competent in managing cross-cultural issues, can be able to adjust and adapt to different environments. Bennett has provided six stages of how individuals develop intercultural competence. The first step is the denial stage. At this level, individuals are not able to interact (Ward, 1999). Usually, people refuse to interact and behave aggressively. The second level is the defense stage. In this stage, individuals consider their culture superior over the other (Ward, 1999). Individuals usually criticize the other culture because it is â€Å"inferior.† At this stage, individuals will also defend their culture. The third step is the minimization stage. At this stage, individuals believe that all cultures share common values (Ward, 1999). People try to minimize cultural difference. The fourth level is the acceptance stage. At this stage, individuals are curious about the other culture. Although they may criticize the other culture, they will also acknowledge that not all cultures are similar. The next stage is the adaptation stage. At this stage, individuals start adapting the other culture. People begin to change communication style and s o on. The last step is the integration stage. At this stage, individuals are fully integrated with the other culture (Ward, 1999). Individuals’ adapt some behaviors from the other culture. Some people can even communicate using different styles (Ward, 1999). The cross-cultural theory portrays what happens to individual while adapting to a new culture. A tourist from the US visiting India would most likely stay in a hotel. While at the hotel or restaurant, the tourists experiences cross-cultural issues. The individual comes across different lifestyle, communication style, and unfamiliar food.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Managing cultural diversity in the hospitality industry specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In the example presented, it is clear that adapting to a new culture is a long process with many challenges. The link between this theory and issues of cultural diversity is that, the theory describ es steps that such individuals would go through to be integrated into a new culture. In the diagram the arrows represents the stages of development. Cultural Dimension Theory According to Cultural dimensions theory people are different from six dimensions. The difference in dimension is what determines how people can easily adopt to foreign cultures. This theory argues that societies have different power structure. Some cultures such as Indian culture encourage a gap between people in high positions and subordinates. While the US culture encourages equal power distance between leaders or managers and workers. This leads to democratic type of leadership. In a close power relation, people interact as equals irrespective of their formal positions. People can be able to provide their ideas and participate in decisions making. The second dimension is individualism verses collectivism. This refers to the level of integration in the society. The US is an example of an individualistic soci ety. The US culture is focused on individual achievement but others such as India encourage collective effort. Individuals have to forego their personal needs for common goals (Dean and Leung, 2003). According to the cultural dimension theory the third aspect that differentiates, people are the level of tolerance and avoidance practiced by a society. Tolerance and avoidance is an aspect used by the society to socialize its members on ways of dealing with anxiety and new ideas (Cornelius, 2002). The US has a high level of tolerance because of its diverse population compared to India. On the other hand, India has a homogenous culture. Hence, India encourages avoidance making it hard for Indians to adopt other cultures.Advertising Looking for essay on cultural studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The fourth dimension is masculine verses feminine. Socialization and allocation of gender roles is different depending on the society. The American society advocates for equality between men and women in the society. In societies that are masculine such as India men make decisions. While in the US, women have the opportunity to make or influence decisions. Additionally, in masculine societies gender roles are rigid there are domains that are set specifically for men and women. One such society is India where it is a taboo for men to cook and look after children. Nevertheless, in the US both men and women share gender roles (Warner and Joynt, 2002). The fifth cultural dimension is long-term verses short-term orientation. Societies with short-term orientation emphasizes on the past and present. Community members conserve and protect their cultural values. Short-term orientation does not allow change of ideas. India is an example of a short-term orientation society with rigid cultural values (Warner and Joynt, 2002). While the US is a long-term orientation society, it focuses on the future. Long-term orientation societies are tolerant to different cultures and encourage new ideas (Deresky, 2001). The sixth and the last cultural dimension is indulgence against restraint. In societies that encourage indulgence, individuals are allowed to satisfy their needs and desires. Such societies encourage people to have what they want when they want. Societies that practice restraint are more conservative and do not tolerate other cultures. Individuals from this type of society do not adopt new cultures. Western countries practice indulgence while those in countries such as India practice restraint. How issues of culture shock affects work Issues of culture shock affects work in many ways. According to cross-cultural theory, an individual who is experiencing culture shock will not relate well with colleagues at the work place. Lack of good relationship may affect individualâ €™s commitment to work (Hopkins, 2009). Secondly, individuals experiencing culture shock face communication problems. In the work place, lack of proper communication may cause poor feedback. Issues of culture shock may also cause low production (Kirton, and Greene, 2000). In the work place, people work in groups and contribute towards the same goals. Managing culture shock in the work environment Managing culture shock is the first step towards adapting and coping in a new work environment. This is what Bennet refers to as competence in the cross-cultural theory. To overcome culture shock, affected individuals like Steve should do the following. First, develop confidence and always remember about your personal strengths. This is the first step in adapting a new culture as portrayed in the acceptance stage of cross-cultural theory. Secondly, always keep an open mind. Being open minded will help an individual not to judge other based on their culture (Brislin, 2008). Thirdly, alwa ys maintain a sense of humor. Laughing will always help to fight embarrassment, fear, and despair (Brislin, 2008). Furthermore, the affected individual should develop a hobby (Brislin, 2008). One can decide to make new friends in the work environment and so on. Another strategy is being patient. It is not easy to adapt in a new environment. It takes time to be integrated with a new culture (Brislin, 2008). At the adaptation stage, individuals should try to be flexible. Being flexible will facilitate rapid change. Lastly, try to read new resources. Reading books and other articles will help an individual to understand others and appreciate their culture (Brislin, 2008). The procedures portrayed here are what Bennet refers as â€Å"adaptation.† Once individual adapt to the culture they become integrated. Encouraging cultural diversity in the work place In the hospitality sector, cultural diversity helps in ensuring that all people are comfortable working together despite of the ir cultural differences. In order to manage cross-cultural issues, restraints and hotels should make the initiative to help their workers and visitors adapt in a new environment. As such, it is important for organizations like restaurants to develop mechanisms, which will encourage cultural diversity at the work place. Foremost, restaurant and hotel management should provide mentors cross culturally (Schneider and Barsoux, 2003). This is very important because it will help leaders to understand people of different cultures like tourist. This will also enable the management to provide guideline for employees experiencing culture shock. Secondly, the management should provide training seminars to encourage cultural diversity (Brislin, 2008). Training should be conducted to all new employees to familiarize them with the new environment and existing cultural differences. The training should focus on ways of helping the new employees to adapt, accept, and appreciate their new environment and culture. Thirdly, the hospitality management should encourage leaders to prepare and present a cultural profile of their workers (Schneider and Barsoux, 2003). By preparing such a profile, the manager can present it to new workers to familiarize them with other colleagues. This will help in preparing new workers so that they do not become disappointed due to different expectations. Presentation can be done using Power Point. In the work environment, leaders should promote cultural diversity by encouraging sports and other events especially when doing orientation for new employees. During such events, people can share history, stories, and experiences about their cultures. The participants can organize different cultural activities like sports, dances, and story-telling sessions. This will bring people together. It will also help people to understand and appreciate others (Lewis, 1999). In addition to this, hotel managers should craft statements or create posters, which promotes cultural diversity (Schneider and Barsoux, 2003). such posters should be put on all public places and in the offices too. The manager can craft the following statement, â€Å"Be flexible, accept change, and appreciate others.† This message does promote cultural diversity. In case there is sensitive discussion at the work place, the leaders should tactfully intervene and avoid being bias (Marx, 1999). Finally, individuals should develop positive attitude and learn from others. All employees should embrace change and develop a common organization culture. In summary, embracing changes in the hospitality sector is a very important in promoting cultural diversity. The hospitality industry should be more involved in this process because they receive people from different cultural background especially tourist. Management in the hospitality industry should always make the initiative to help employees and diverse customers adapt to new working environment. It is also important that people should accept and appreciate different cultures (Reynolds and Valentine, 2004). In the hospitality industry, the management should provide cross-cultural training courses to enable customers and employees appreciate different cultures. According to cross-cultural theory, patience is needed as it takes time to adapt a different culture. Reference List Brislin, W., 2008. Working with cultural differences: dealing effectively with diversity in  the workplace. Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group. Cornelius, N., 2002. Building Workplace Equality. Ethics, Diversity and Inclusion.  London: Thomson learning. D’Almeida, M., 2007. The effects of cultural diversity in the workplace. Michigan: ProQuest. Dean. T., Leung, K., 2003. Cross-cultural management: foundations and future. Farmham: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. Deresky, H., 2001. International Management: Managing across Borders and Cultures. London: Prentice Hall Dowling, P., J., Welch, D., E., 2008. International Human Resources  Management: Managing People in a Multinational Context. (5th Ed.). London: Thomas Learning. Henderson, G., 1994. Cultural diversity in the workplace: issues and strategies. Westport: Quorum Books. Hopkins, B., 2009. Cultural Differences and Improving Performance: How Values and  Beliefs Influence Organizational Performance. London: Gower Publishing, Ltd. Kirton, G., Greene, A., 2000. The Dynamics of Managing Diversity. Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann. Lewis, R., D., 1999. When Cultures Collide – Managing Successfully Across Cultures  London: Nicholas Brealey Publishing. Marx, E., 1999. Breaking Through Culture Shock. London: Nicholas Brealey Publishing. Reynolds, S., Valentine, D., 2004. Guide to Cross-Cultural Communication (2nd ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Schneider, S., Barsoux, J., 2003. Managing Across Cultures. London: Prentice Hall. Warner, M., Joynt, P., 2002. Managing Across Cultures: Issues and Perspectives  (2nd Ed.). London: Thomson learn ing. Ward, C., 1999. Cross Cultural theory. Cross-cultural Comparisons and Methodological  Issues1 (1) pp 3-8. This essay on Managing cultural diversity in the hospitality industry was written and submitted by user Teagan Mercer to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Interventions For Substance Abuse Amongst Young People The WritePass Journal

Interventions For Substance Abuse Amongst Young People INTRODUCTION Interventions For Substance Abuse Amongst Young People , 20,688 young people accessed substance misuse services, with the majority of this number accessing services for abuse of cannabis (64%) or alcohol (29%) (National Drug Treatment Monitoring System, 2012). Over half of the users were aged 16 to 18 (53%), whilst the rest were aged under 16 (National Drug Treatment Monitoring System, 2012). About two thirds (64%) of the young people who accessed specialist substance misuse services in 2010-11 were male.   Overall, females accessing substance misuse services for young people are younger with 19% of males aged under 15 years compared to 27% of females. Almost   half   of   the   young   people   entering   specialist   substance   misuse   services   are   recorded   as   being   in mainstream   education, such   as   schools   and   further   education   colleges,   followed   by   a   further   19%   in alternative   education, such   as   schooling   delivered   in   a   pupil   referral   unit   or   home   setting.   A further 19% are recorded as not in education or employment.   However, it should be noted that education   and   employment   status   was   reported for only new   young   people   entering   specialist   services   during the year. Therefore, the total will be lower than that of all young people (National Drug Treatment Monitoring System, 2012). Referrals to drug and alcohol treatment services commonly come from youth offending teams, although around 14% of referrals come from mainstream education institutions and 7% are made up of self-referrals. Perhaps surprisingly referrals from the Child and Adolescent Mental Health service (CAHMS) make up only 3% of referrals (National Drug Treatment Monitoring System, 2012). These figures paint a perhaps surprising picture. For example, more young people are referred to specialist drug and alcohol services from mainstream education than specialist educational centres, suggesting that substance abuse could be far rifer amongst young people as might be expected. It could be argued that failure of school authorities to take a more effective preventative approach to drug and alcohol abuse may be contributing to the overall problem. These figures also suggest that immediate attention and intervention must be offered to young people to reduce negative outcomes associated with such high drug use. The statistics reveal that there is a high rate of drug and substance abuse among young people in the UK. The high of level concern about the use of illicit drugs and substances has an effect on health, educational and political discussions in the UK. The government’s national strategy for ten years on drug misuse views young people as a critical priority group in need of quick prevention and treatment intervention (Keegan and Moss, 2008) and recognises the need to improve our understanding of the role played by illicit drugs and substances in the lives of such young people. Educators, health practitioners and policy makers should have comprehensive understanding when it comes to discussions involving the abuse of illicit drugs. For example, the Government must take into account factors such as a lack of understanding amongst young people as to the laws that govern different classes of illegal drugs. Abuse of alcohol and other drugs leads to the destruction of cognitive and emotional development in young people and exposes them to an increased possibility of accidental injury or even death. Finally, there is also a risk of users becoming drug dependent. Abuse of drugs and alcohol by young people can also lead to such negative consequences as coronary heart diseases, lung cancer, AIDS, violent crime, child abuse and unemployment (Gurnack, Atkinson Osgood, 2002). As a result, individuals indulging in the use of alcohol and other drugs incur tremendous costs in their individual lives, their family lives and even their future careers. Society is also not exempt as it pays a price in different ways. For instance, society incurs extra costs in health care, drug and alcohol treatment, law enforcement and supporting the seriously affected families who have been rendered helpless by the situation. There are many reasons why young people become involved in substance abuse. From a sociology perspective it has been argued that the recreational abuse of drugs has become ‘normalised’ (Parker, Measham and Aldridge, 1995) among certain groups of young people. However, Shiner and Newburn (1997) have argued that this theory is reductionist and simplifies the reasons behind a young person’s choice to abuse drugs. In reality, the reasons as to why a young person may begin to abuse drugs can range from having poor adult role models who may also use drugs and alcohol as a way of coping or even a genetic predisposition toward poor self-regulatory behaviours (Spooner and Hall, 2002). Evidence shows that adolescent alcohol and drug abuse is not influenced by a single factor but a large number of factors which are not necessarily confined to any single part of the an adolescent’s world (Connors, Donovan DiClemente, 2001). Environment The environment in which a person lives is very instrumental when it comes to the kind of life that people lead, especially young people. If the environment is for example characterized by pronounced unemployment then young people in such an environment will indulge in activities that make them forget even for a moment the realities of the unemployment situation. If, for example, in their immediate environment young people face the situation of a large supply of drugs and everyone around them is abusing drugs or alcohol, then it is easy for such young people to adopt this kind of lifestyle and become drink or drug abusers. The above explanation shows that the kind of environment a young person stays in has a very direct influence on the habits that are finally adopted by this group of young people. Curiosity Young people naturally have the tendency to try new things and to find out how it feels doing something new.   Young people in the United Kingdom are not an exception and most of them usually try drinking and drugs just to explore and find out what the experience is like. This however results in the young people becoming victims of the consequences that follow (Woo and Keatinge, 2008). The Defence Mechanism A good number of young people use drugs specifically to assist them in easing trauma that may result from unsatisfactory relationships and also physical or emotional abuse that may arise from families or homes that lack happiness. Promotion and Availability There is always a great amount of pressure from advertisement of alcohol over the media. The colourful nature of these promotions is often very enticing and mostly misleading. In the promotions or commercials, alcohol is glamorised hence the young people are influenced to indulge and as a result end up facing the dire consequences. This review will analyse the different interventions utilised when working with young people who abuse drugs and alcohol. These include those carried out by mental health workers, religion-orientated interventions, community based interventions and more psychiatric, medication based interventions. Motivational based interventions are also discussed. Aims and Objectives The aim of this project will be to review and critically evaluate the literature regarding different interventions for young people who abuse drugs and alcohol in the UK. To achieve this aim the project has set the following objectives: To critically examine the interventions for young people (aged 16 to 21) who use drugs and alcohol in UK, with the aim of providing recommendations to improve the care given to the youths who are addicted or at risk of substance abuse. To use secondary data to identify the importance of different interventions in dealing with young people (age 16 to 21) who use drugs and alcohol in the UK. Rationale Interventions for young people aged 16 to 21 who use drugs and alcohol has elicited varied opinions from professionals involved in their care. This has been a result of the often complex and varied needs of young people with substance abuse issues, such as mental health issues (Weaver et al., 2003), social exclusion (Fakhoury and Priebe, 2006) and involvement with the criminal justice system (Hamdi and Knight, 2012; Lundholm et al., 2013). Therefore, there is often disagreement on where the intervention should focus primarily. Various strategies have been advanced to address the involvement of young adults in drugs and substance abuse. For example, medication by mental health nurses in cases of addiction (Bennett and Holloway, 2005). However, due to the variety of interventions available for treating young people with substance abuse disorder, it is important to continuously review the literature in this area and pin point the most effective interventions for treating this group of individuals. [Client must write some words here on why they have chosen this topic (this is essential according to the assignment brief).] SEARCH STRATEGY In preparation for this critical literature review, a number of sources including journals, articles and health text books were used. The search was conducted using computerised databases which enabled access to literature on interventions for young people who abuse drugs and alcohol. Examples of such databases are given below: The Department of Health NHS Evidence (National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence, 2012). PsycINFO (American Psychological Association, 2013). PubMed (National Center for Biotechnology Information, 2013). Google Scholar (Google, 2013). net (EMAP Publishing, 2013). Nursing and Midwifery Council publications (Nursing and Midwifery Council, 2010). Royal College of Psychiatrists useful resources (Royal College of Psychiatrists, 2013). Royal College of Nursing library services (Royal College of Nursing, 2013). These databases contained numerous useful sources such as journal articles, recommendations, guidelines and reviews that were used to gather evidence relevant to interventions for young people who abuse drugs and alcohol. Search terms used included; ‘drugs and substance abuse’, ‘alcohol abuse’, ‘effects of alcohol abuse’, and ‘intervention measures for drugs and substance abuse[1]’. It was not uncommon for a search to produce many results. Therefore, for any search that produced more than 50 results, the first 50 results were observed to pick out the most relevant and interesting studies. The remaining results were not looked at because of time constraints[2]. In addition to searching for relevant sources through online databases, reference lists within articles were also utilised to search for other relevant sources. Inclusion Criteria For an effective review of the subject area, there was a need to select relevant articles to achieve the set objectives. Therefore, only sources relevant to intervention for young people who abuse drugs and alcohol, papers published in the English language and papers published after the year 1999 were selected. Although sources pertaining to studies carried out in the USA were still considered relevant, a priority was given to sources from the UK. If a source had used an adult sample but was still considered relevant and useful then it was considered for inclusion. Exclusion Criteria General papers on drugs and substance abuse not specific to youths, papers published in languages other than English and published before the year 1999 were not included. An example search strategy when using one of these sources, the British Nursing Index, is given below. Search Strategy Example: British Nursing Index (BNI). Through citing the term ‘intervention for young people who abuse drugs and alcohol’, 5,000 articles were gathered without limiters. Limiters such as ‘role of mental health nurses’ and ‘only book and journals concerned with drugs and substance abuse’ were applied to the second search, which reduced the output to 2,034 books and journals. In the third search, additional limiters such as year of publication (2000-2012) were applied, which then reduced the number of books and journals to 734. After all further limiters were applied, such as articles that only used an age group of 16 to 21 years as participants, 70 journals and books were chosen for further analysis. Only 23 articles were considered relevant for this review and analysis due to their in depth exploration of the subject and their meeting of inclusion and exclusion criteria. LITERATURE REVIEW Interventions for substance abuse serve a number of purposes including reducing use of illicit or non-prescribed drugs and curbing problems related to drug misuse, including health, social, psychological and legal problems and last but not least tackling the dangers associated with drug misuse, including the risks of HIV, hepatitis B and C and other blood-borne infections and the risks of drug-related death. Prevention and intervention are usually categorised into primary (direct prevention), secondary (early identification of the problem and subsequent treatment) and tertiary levels (late identification and treatment). Furthermore, interventions are now often categorised into population wide interventions, selective interventions aimed at only high risk groups and early interventions for at-risk groups (Cuijpers, 2003). The nature of interventions has also evolved over the years. Twenty to thirty years ago the emphasis was on providing young people with information and buffering moral values whereas in the more modern era, a social dimension has been added and young people are taught resistance skills to avoid peer pressure (Gilvarry, 2000). Alcohol related deaths are rife in the UK, with 8,748 alcohol related deaths in the UK in 2011 (Office for National Statistics, 2013). However, there were 1,883 noted drug related deaths in 2010, a decrease of 299 from 2009 (Ghodse et al. 2012). These statistics reflect the importance of interventions for drug abusers, which could be protecting some individuals from the most extreme consequence of substance abuse. Mental Health Interventions Research has evidenced that Major Depressive Disorder (American Psychiatric Association, 1994) is often co-morbid in young people who abuse drugs and alcohol (Sutcliffe et al., 2009; Marshall and Werb, 2010; Marmorstein, Iacono and Malone, 2010). Due to the potentially devastating effects of depression at both the individual (Galaif et al., 2011; Petrie and Brook, 2011) and societal level (Sobocki et al., 2006), substance abuse is viewed as something that must be dealt with swiftly and effectively. This co-morbidity of mental illness and substance abuse means that mental health nurses are often involved in interventions with young people. Mental illness is a psychological anomaly that is generally associated with distress or disability that is usually not considered to be a component of an individual’s normal development (Nursing and Midwifery Council, 2008). Despite the fact that standard guideline criteria are used all over the world to define mental illness, diagnosis and i ntervention is often incredibly complex, especially when substance abuse is also a factor. Community services are offered to people with such problems through assessment by different psychiatrists and clinical psychologists, or sometimes social workers. All these professionals use methods of observation and inquiries through asking questions to help establish any given patient’s condition. Mental health nurses are often at the front line in providing care and support in both hospitals and the community. In the United Kingdom, mental health nurses play a great role in taking care of young people with mental disorders and mental illnesses that may have developed as a result of substance abuse (Department of Health, 2012). They offer counselling services in order to help people focus on their goals or outcomes; help people develop strategies that support self-care and enable individuals and their families to take responsibility for and participate in decisions about their health. They provide a range of services including education, research and knowledge sharing and e vidence informed practices. They also perform the role of addiction counsellors in order to provide intake co-ordination, assessment, treatment and follow-up care for youths with addictions, mental illness and mental health problems using common assessment tools. They can provide health promotion, prevention and early detection of problematic substance use; use core competencies and knowledge in addictions and a full range of withdrawal management services including detoxification services using best practice treatment protocols, outreach, prescribing, counselling, and harm reduction However, mental health nurses are often faced with challenges that hinder them from successfully achieving their goals. Challenges include non co-operation of the patients’ families and also the complex nature of patient problems (Nursing and Midwifery Council, 2008). In a comprehensive review, RachBeisel, Scott and Dixon (1999) found that there was a much higher prevalence of substance abuse amongst individuals with mental illness and that the course of mental illness was significantly negatively influenced by the abuse of illegal substances. These findings highlight a key issue in mental health interventions for young people who abuse substances, namely that it is important to determine the relationship between the substance abuse and mental illness before allocating a suitable intervention. For example, if a young person has developed a mental illness as a result of abusing substances, a mental health focused intervention may not be appropriate as it would not be treating the root of the problem or the reason why the young person started to use illegal substances in the first place. Psychiatric and Medical Interventions Psychiatric and medical based interventions refer to the treatment of substance abuse in a young person by a psychiatrist who is medically trained and able to provide an additional dimension of treatment than a psychologist or mental health worker is able to. An example of this is the prescription of methadone, a synthetic opiate that is used to help young people withdraw safely from heroin use. The National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (2007) recommend a psycho-social approach when treating individuals with substance abuse disorder and advocate the use of medication. However, use of medication with young people who are suffering from substance abuse disorders should be used with care due to the risk of dangerous side effects (Webster, 2005). Motivational Interventions Motivational interventions are brief interventions used by professionals to enhance a young person’s motivation to change and stop abusing substances (Tevyaw and Monti, 2004). In a review of the effectiveness of motivational interviewing (Smedslund et al., 2011) it was found that although motivational interviewing techniques were more effective at reducing the extent of future substance abuse when compared to no intervention, the technique was no more effective when compared to other types of intervention. For example, motivational interviewing was no better at reducing extent of substance abuse that simply assessing a patient and providing feedback. The authors reviewed 59 studies that had been accessed from a range of online databases. This is a reasonable number of studies as the body of literature on motivational interviewing as an intervention for substance abuse is quite limited. However, the authors failed to collect evidence on other measures of efficacy such as a redu ction in future criminal prosecution for drug offences or improvement in overall quality of life. The efficacy of motivational interviewing has been studied in young people in particular by McCambridge and Strang (2003). 200 young people from inner city London were randomly allocated to either a motivational interviewing condition or a non-intervention education control condition. All participants were aged between 16 and 20 and were using illegal drugs at the time of the study. The motivational interviewing intervention consisted of a brief, one hour face-to-face interview and self-reported changes in the use of cigarettes, cannabis, alcohol and other drugs was used as the outcome measure both immediately after the interview and at a three month follow up point. It was found that in comparison to the control group, young people who received motivational interviewing as a brief intervention reduced their use of cigarettes, alcohol and cannabis. Although these results initially seem in favour of motivational interviewing as an intervention for young people who have substance abuse issues, it should be noted that self-report measures are very open to bias and it is possible that the reported reduced use of drugs and alcohol was much higher than the actual reduction in use. This was reflected in a follow up study by the same authors 12 months later (McCambridge and Strang, 2005) where it was found that the difference in reduction in substance use between the experimental and control groups found after three months had completely disappeared. This result suggests that although motivational interviewing may be an effective short term intervention for treating young people with substance abuse issues, it has no enduring effectiveness over a long period of time. This may be due to a lack of follow-up support for young people and the brief nature of the intervention. Community-Based Interventions Community drug and alcohol services offer interventions such as comprehensive assessment and recovery care planning, support and care co-ordination,   advice and information, stabilisation, counselling and relapse prevention and motivational interviewing (Nursing and Midwifery Council, 2008). Hepatitis B vaccinations, Hepatitis C testing and referral to treatment for these diseases, are also essential due to the risk of infections through needle sharing. Like most interventions, these community services are aimed at promoting recovery from addiction and enabling the achievement of individual goals, helping individuals to remain healthy, until, with appropriate support, they can achieve a drug-free life. This may involve stabilising service users on prescribed substitute medication to improve withdrawal symptoms and to reduce cravings. In their review of community-based interventions, Jones et al. (2006) found a limit on the effectiveness of such interventions, especially when it ca me to long term and enduring effect for reducing substance abuse. The results suggested that a change in community-based interventions was needed. Morgenstern et al. (2001) found a very high level of satisfaction among community based substance abuse counsellors who had received training in delivering cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) to clients. This suggests that perhaps one way of increasing the effectiveness of community-based interventions would be to equip community-based workers with a wider range of skills with which they can help young people suffering from substance abuse. Supporting this recommendation was a study by Waldron and Kaminer (2004) who found that use of CBT was associated with clinically significant reductions in substance abuse amongst adolescents. Religious Interventions Some interventions are religious in nature. For instance, the United Methodist Church follows a holistic approach which stresses prevention, involvement, treatment, community organization, and advocacy of abstinence. The church could be argued to have a progressive role by offering a spiritual perception on the issue of substance abuse. Another popular religious based approach to tacking alcohol abuse in particular is the 12-step program offered by Alcoholics Anonymous. Individuals are commonly encouraged or possibly even required cut any acquaintances with friends who still use alcohol.  The 12-step programme motivates addicts to stop consuming alcohol or other drugs and also it helps to scrutinize and modify the habits related to their  cause of addiction. Numerous programs accentuate that recovery is a long-lasting process with no culmination. For drugs which are legal such as alcohol, complete abstinence is recommended rather than attempts at  moderation which may cause rel apses. Fiorentine and Hillhouse (2000) found that participants in a 12-step program stayed in future treatment for a much longer period of time and were much more likely to be able to complete a 24-week intervention programme. It was also found that a combination of a 12-step program and an alternative substance abuse intervention was more effective than either treatment alone. This suggests that providing young people with interventions in isolation may not be the most effective way of helping them overcome their substance abuse. However, literature on religious based interventions tends to focus on adults and although still applicable to the treatment of young people in many ways, young people may be put off by the religious nature of these 12-step programmes and may be intimidated by the group nature of the treatment. In support of this criticism, Engle and MacGowan (2009) found that only two out of 13 adolescent group treatments of substance abuse could be categorised as showing potential efficacy in treating young people with these problems. Family-Oriented Interventions It has been argued that the family has a central role in both increasing and reducing the risk of problem behaviours in young people such as substance abuse (Vimpani and Spooner, 2003). A review by Velleman, Templeton and Copello (2005) echoed this view that the family can have both a positive or negative impact on a young person’s risk of substance abuse. Kumpfer, Alvarado and Whiteside (2003) have identified that support for families based within the home, family education and skills training, improving parental behaviour and time-limited family therapy are all highly effective forms of family-based interventions for young people with substance abuse issues. However, as research has shown that the family can also play a role in increasing risk of substance abuse, professionals must be confident that family therapy is suitable and not run the risk of worsening a young person’s relationship with their family and in turn worsening their substance abuse. School-Based Interventions Education about the use of drugs and alcohol within schools has been advocated as a preventative intervention for young people at risk of substance abuse disorder. Fletcher, Bonell and Hargreaves (2008) found that interventions focused around encouraging a positive school environment and improving young peoples’ relationships was associated with a reduction in risky substance abuse. However, part of this conclusion was based on the review of observational studies, which are open to bias and subjectivity. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE RECOMMENDATIONS This essay has reviewed a number of sources regarding the efficacy and suitability of certain interventions for young people with substance abuse issues. A key limitation of much of the literature is the tendency to put emphasis on drugs as a generic material with very little distinction is made between different types of illicit substances. With the very varied effects of different drugs on the user, it could be argued that the specific reasons for a young person’s drug usage will have an impact on the effects that a drug has. For example, stimulant drugs will most likely be used for nervous system arousal, while other drugs such as alcohol and cannabis are sedatives and cause nervous system depression. These kinds of drugs can be termed as instrumental drugs since the reasons behind their usage correspond to the effect of the different kind of drug that is used (Brick, 2008). Therefore, it might be useful for professionals to base their interventions on the types of substanc e abused. From the above literature review it is evident that there is need for mental healthcare especially to help young people who are adversely affected by the use of drugs and other substance abuse. Some youths suffer from psychiatric disorders as a result of indulgence in drugs and substance abuse. Others experience mental problems that need serious rehabilitation measures taken in order to counter such problems hence emphasis should be laid on the care that is to be given to the young people affected by any of the above problems caused by the abuse of drugs and other substances. Therefore, mental health interventions remain an important intervention for young people. A number of recommended adjustments in healthcare to cater for young people struggling with abuse have been identified. For example, there should be an increased application of various musical strategies in helping patients suffering from various mental health conditions as a result of substance abuse (Connors, Donovan DiClemente, 2001), as this kind of intervention appears to be lacking in use with young people. Another main limitation in research that aims to measure the effectiveness of intervention measures is the lack of control that researchers have. It would be considered unethical if young people with drug abuse problems were randomly allocated to intervention procedures, especially if one was chosen as a control condition and was not believed to be effective in treating substance abuse issues. This means that it can be difficult to compare intervention methods. Another limitation lies in the types of measure researchers’ use to measure effectiveness of intervention methods. For example, a self-report measure may be used to assess whether young people have either stopped or at least reduced their intake of illicit substances. This type of questionnaire may also be used to see if the young people are seeing a positive result from receiving an intervention. However, self-report measures are open to social desirability bias meaning that many young people may fabricate their answer s in order to either please the professionals who are involved with helping them or to conceal ongoing substance abuse. The review has also emphasized the causes or triggers of alcohol and drug abuse among young people in the United Kingdom showing that the environment a young person stays in is one of the greatest factors that lead to indulgence in alcohol, drug and substance abuse. Other factors like enjoyment, peer pressure, promotions in the media and rebellion are also causes of alcohol, drug and substance abuse among the youth in the United Kingdom (Gurnack, Atkinson and Osgood, 2002). More focus on these root causes could help improve prevention and reduce the need for later intervention, which has a poor track record of success. Finally, there is need according to the literature review to improve media perception of mental health patients in order to help alleviate the conditions of psychiatric disorders that are caused by the indulgence of young people in alcohol, drug and substance abuse (Berglund and Thelander, 2003). This doesn’t indicate failure in the mental nursing services but it just implies that mental health workers and psychiatrists need reinforcement in order to positively contribute to successful intervention (Califano, 2007).   This suggestion is based on the need for a more holistic approach when it comes to treating young people with substance abuse issues, where the effect on all areas of their life including their mental health must be taken into account during intervention. Strengths of this Critical Literature Review Secondary data was reviewed in this project, which provided larger scope on choices of information for the project. In addition this review was able to identify key areas for improvement of health condition interventions for youths affected by substance abuse. Limitations of this Critical Literature Review This literature review was small in scale, since word and time limits were set. Although 23 articles were selected for review, this number could have been improved. This could have provided a greater depth of understanding of the study area. In addition, limited time implicated how the review was to be carried out. The review was to be carried out in a period of less than three months during which time more than 23 articles were to be accessed and critically analysed. REFERENCES American Psychiatric Association, 1994. DSM-IV. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 4th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association. American Psychological Association, 2013. PsycINFO. [online] Available at: apa.org/pubs/databases/psycinfo/index.aspx [Accessed 26 March 2013]. Bennett, T. and Holloway, K. (2005). Understanding drugs, alcohol and crime. Maidenhead: Open University Press. Berglund, M., Thelander, S. and Jonsson, E. (2003) Treating alcohol and drug abuse: An evidence based review. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. Brick, J. (2008) Handbook of the medical consequences of alcohol and drug abuse. New York: Haworth Press. Califano, J. A. (2007). 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Evidence-based treatment for alcohol and drug abuse: A practitioners guide to theory, methods, and practice. New York: Routledge. Engle, B. and MacGowan, M.J. (2009) A critical review of adolescent substance abuse group treatments. Journal of evidence-based social work, 6(3), pp. 217-243. Fakhoury, W.K.H. and Priebe, S. (2006) An unholy alliance: substance abuse and social exclusion among assertive outreach patients. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 114(2), pp. 124-131. Fiorentine, R. and Hillhouse, M.P. (2000) Drug treatment and 12-step program participation: The additive effects of integrated recovery activities. Journal of Substance Abuse and Treatment, 18, pp. 65-74. Fletcher, A., Bonell, C. and Hargreaves, J. (2008) School effects on young people’s drug use: A systematic review of intervention and observational studies. Journal of Adolescent Health, 42(3), pp. 209-220. Galaif, E.R., Sussman, S., Newcomb, M.D. and Locke, T.F. (2011) Suicidality, depression, and alcohol use among adolescents: A review of empirical findings. International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health, 19(1), pp. 27-35. Ghodse, H., Corkery, J., Schifano, F., Piolanti, A., Trincas, G. and Melchiorre, G.D. (2012) Drug related deaths in the UK. Annual Report 2011. London, UK: International Centre for Drug Policy. Gilvarry, E. (2000) Substance abuse in young people. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 41(1), pp. 55-80. Google (2013) Google Scholar. [online] Available at: http://scholar.google.co.uk/ [Accessed 26 March 2013]. Gurnack, A. M., Atkinson, R. M. and Osgood, N. J. (2002) Treating alcohol and drug abuse in the elderly. New York: Springer Publications. Hamdi, N.R. and Knight, R.A. (2012) The relationships of perpetrator and victim substance use to the sexual aggression of rapists and child molesters. Sexual Abuse – A Journal of Research and Treatment, 24(4), pp. 307-327. Home Office (2012) Illicit drug use among 16-24s tales Drug Misuse Declared: Findings from the 2011/12 Crime Survey for England and Wales. [online] Available at: homeoffice.gov.uk/publications/science-research-statistics/research-statistics/crime-research/drugs-misuse-dec-1112-tabs/extent-young-tabs [Accessed 27 March 2013]. Jones, L., Sumnall, H., Witty, K., Wareing, M., McVeigh, J. and Bellis, M. (2006) A review of community-based interventions to reduce substance misuse among vulnerable and disadvantaged young people. London: National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence. Keegan, K. and Moss, H (2008) Chasing the high: A firsthand account of one young persons experience with substance abuse. New York: Oxford University Press. Lundholm, L., Haggard, L., Moller, J., Hallqvist, J. and Ingemar, T. (2013) The triggering effect of alcohol and illicit drugs on violence crime in a remand prison population: A case crossover study. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 129(1-2), pp. 110-115. Marmorstein, N.R., Iacono, W.G. and Malone, S.M. (2010) Longitudinal associations between depression and substance dependence from adolescence through early adulthood. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 107(2), pp. 154-160. Marshall, B.D.L. and Werb, D. (2010) Health outcomes associated with methamphetamine use among young people: a systematic review. Addiction, 105(6), pp. 991-1002. McCambridge, J. and Strang, J. (2003) The efficacy of single-session motivational interviewing in reducing drug consumption and perceptions of drug-related risk and harm among young people: result from a multi-site cluster randomised trial. Addiction, 99, pp. 39-52. McCambridge, J. and Strang, J. (2005) Deterioration over time in effect of Motivational Interviewing in reducing drug consumption and related risk among young people. Addiction, 100(4), pp. 470-478. National Center for Biotechnology Information (2013) PubMed. [online] Available at: ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed [Accessed 26 March 2013]. National Drug Treatment Monitoring System (2012) Statistics for young people in specialist drug and alcohol services in England 2011-12. London, UK: National Drug Treatment Monitoring System. National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (2007) Drug misuse: psychosocial interventions: full guidelines. London: National Institute for Clinical Excellence. National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (2012) NHS Evidence. [online] Available at: nice.org.uk/aboutnice/aboutnhsevidence.jsp [Accessed 26 March 2013]. Nursing and Midwifery Council (2008) Code, Standards for conduct, performance and ethicsfor nurses and midwives. www.nmc.uk.org Nursing and Midwifery Council (2010) Publications. [online] Available at: nmc-uk.org/Publications-/ [Accessed 26 March 2013]. Office for National Statistics (2013) Alcohol-related deaths in the United Kingdome, 2011. London, UK: Office for National Statistics. Parker, H.J., Measham, F. and Aldridge, J. (1995) Drugs futures: changing patterns of drug use amongst English youth. London: Institute for the Study of Drug Dependence. Petrie, K. and Brook, R. (2011) Sense of coherence, self-esteem, depression and hopelessness as correlates of reattempting suicide. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 31(3), pp. 293-300. RachBeisel, J., Scott, J. and Dixon, L. (1999) Co-occuring severe mental illness and substance use disorders: A review of recent research. Psychiatric Services, 50(11), pp. 3. Royal College of Nursing (2013) RCN library services and archives. [online] Available at: rcn.org.uk/development/library [Accessed 26 March 2013]. Royal College of Psychiatrists (2013) Useful Resources. [online] Available at: rcpsych.ac.uk/usefulresources.aspx [Accessed 26 March 2013]. Shiner, M. and Newburn, T. (1997) Definitely, maybe not? The normalisation of recreational drug use amongst young people. Sociology, 31(3), pp. 511-529. Smedslund, G., Berg, R.C., Hammerstrom, K.T., Steiro, A., Leiknes, K.A., Dahl, H.M. and Karlsen, K. (2011) Motivational interviewing for substance abuse. Cochrane Database for Systematic Reviews, Issue 5. Sobocki, P., Jonsson, B., Angst, J. and Rehnberg, C. (2006) Cost of depression in Europe. The Journal of Mental Health Policy and Economics, 9(2), pp. 87. Spooner, C. and Hall, W. (2002) Preventing drug misuse by young people: we need to do more than ‘just say no.’ Addiction, 97(5), 478-481. Sutcliffe, C.G., German, D., Sirirojn, B., Latkin, C., Aramrattana, A., Sherman, S.G. and Celentano, D. (2009) Patterns of methamphetamine use and symptoms of depression among young adults in Northern Thailand. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 101(3), pp. 146-151. Tevyaw, T.O. and Monti, P.M. (2004) Motivational enhancement and other brief interventions for adolescent substance abuse: foundations, applications and evaluations. Addiction, 99, pp. 63-75. 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APPENDICES Appendix A Search Term: â€Å"Drugs and substance abuse.†    Source Number of Relevant Hits Department of Health 0 NHS Evidence 5597 PsychINFO 22 PubMed 2337 Google Scholar 1,070,000 Nursing.net 4435 Nursing and Midwifery Council 59 Royal College of Psychiatrists 477 Royal College of Nursing library services 1,753    Search Term: â€Å"Alcohol Abuse.†    Source Number of Relevant Hits Department of Health 0 NHS Evidence 6893 PsychINFO 92 PubMed 87,995 Google Scholar 1,480,000 Nursing.net 1760 Nursing and Midwifery Council 138 Royal College of Psychiatrists 629 Royal College of Nursing library services 1,654 Search Term: â€Å"Effects of alcohol abuse.†    Source Number of Relevant Hits Department of Health 0 NHS Evidence 5476 PsychINFO 31 PubMed 21,363 Google Scholar 1,430,000 Nursing.net 8502 Nursing and Midwifery Council 40 Royal College of Psychiatrists 531 Royal College of Nursing library services 2,590    Search term: â€Å"Intervention measures for drugs and substance abuse.†    Source Number of Relevant Hits Department of Health 0 NHS Evidence 3169 PsychINFO 3 PubMed 215 Google Scholar 174,000 Nursing.net 7672 Nursing and Midwifery Council 23 Royal College of Psychiatrists 302 Royal College of Nursing library services 3,250       Appendix B    Title First Author Publication Year 1 Drug treatment and twelve-step program participation: the additive effects of integrated recovery activities. Fiorentine 2000 2 A critical review of adolescent substance abuse group treatments. Engle 2009 3 Co-occuring severe mental illness and substance use disorders: A review of recent research. RachBeisel 1999 4 Statistics for young people in specialist drug and alcohol services in England 2011-12 National Drug Treatment Monitoring System 2012 5 Substance abuse in young people. Gilvarry 2000 6 The efficacy of single-session motivational interviewing in reducing drug consumption and perceptions of drug-related risk and harm among young people: results from a multi-site cluster randomised trial. McCambridge 2004 7 The role of the family in preventing and interviewing with substance use and misuse: a comprehensive review of family intervention, with a focus on young people. Velleman 2005 8 School effects on young people’s drug use: a systematic review of intervention and observational studies. Fletcher 2008 9 A review of community-based interventions to reduce substance misuse among vulnerable and disadvantaged young people. Jones 2006 10 Motivational enhancement and other brief interventions for adolescent substance abuse: foundations, applications and evaluations. Tevyaw 2004 11 Motivational interviewing for substance abuse. Smedslund 2011 12 On the learning curve: the emerging evidence supporting cognitive-behavioural therapies for adolescent substance abuse. Waldron 2004 13 Testing the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral treatment for substance abuse in a community setting: within treatment and posttreatment findings. Morgenstern 2001 14 Family-based interventions for substance use and misuse prevention. Kumpfer 2003 15 Deterioration over time in effect of Motivational Interviewing in reducing drug consumption and related risk among young people. McCambridge 2005 16 Drug misuse: psychosocial interventions: full guideline. National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence 2007 17 Substance abuse treatment and the stages of change: Selecting and planning interventions. Connors 2001

Assessment of the Dell Multinational Company

Assessment of the Dell Multinational Company Dell Inc. is a multinational company that deals with the production of products and services for computers ad is rated among the largest computer manufacturers in the world. It was established by Michael Dell in November 1984 in Austin Texas. The Turbo PC was first produced in 1985 after Michael Dell dropped out of school in order to concentrate in his business. His belief was that by selling the computer products directly he would have a better understanding on the needs of his customers. The company changed its name to Dell Computer Corporation in 1988 and that marked the beginning of its worldwide expansion. The headquarters of Dell are located in Round Rock in Texas. As of 2010 it currently employs over sixteen thousand people. Dell Company has a global market share of more than 15%. The direct model has been the main core success strategy for Dell Company. Company name: Dell Computer Corporation Mission statement Dell’s mission is to be the leading and the most successfu l computer company in the world at delivering the best customer experience in the world that we serve. This is achieved through its products that target different people such as the consumer class and the corporate class. Products, goods and services Among the products produced by Dell Computer Company include: Adamo Laptops. These range from high end product laptops and come fitted with extra luxury. Power-connect- a high end switch product by Dell Company for high performance in switching. It is mainly used by middle enterprises. N series- this is a computer that is shipped without having the installation of Microsoft windows. Instead, open source operating system or the Linux is installed. Precision- this is a workstation that is rated very high by the dell computer. It is mainly targeted by graphic professions such as engineering, animation, imaging and product design. EMC/Dell- this is a Dell and EMC product that is mainly created for backup. It consolidates the storage and the reby creates a seamless automated storage. This goes a long way in catering for data storage. Studio- this comprises of a given range of desktops and also laptops and include studio 15, studio 17and also studio hybrid. Vostro- this is a range of affordable computers from the Dell Company though the support hours from the technicians is very little. Power-vault- these are products from Dell that are usually have storages and networks that are directly connected. However these products are in partnership with EMC Corporation. Competitors In the information and technology industry, there is a lot of competition. Among the rated competitors of Dell Company include the Hewlett Packard and the IBM. Others include Apple, Toshiba, Acer, Gateway, Sony, Lenovo, Samsung, Asus and Sun Microsystems. This is a generalized category of competitors as the Dell Company is a manufacture of different kinds of products. Other products that Dell produces include peripherals such as LCD televisions, USB d rives, monitors and also projectors. Lenovo, Acer, Apple, Toshiba, Hewlett Packard and the IBM are in competition with Dell Company in the production of computers both on laptops and desktops though with differing aspects. This is due to different needs of the customers. Sony and Samsung are in competition with Dell in the production of LCD televisions, USB drives, monitors and also projectors

EXAM #2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

EXAM #2 - Essay Example Richard Nixon was the President of the United States from 1969 to 1974 and Kissinger who serves as his security advisor together formed the Dà ©tente policy with the Soviet Union. This policy was made to ease the tensed situation internationally (whitehouse.gov,  History of the National Security Council, 1947–1997). In terms of Realism, The Dà ©tente policy was an extension of the containment policy which was made by Kennan, the only difference being the reality of the situation. That is the Containment theory which was formed during post World War II whereas the Dà ©tente was formed during the Vietnam War. The political realism of twentieth century was born to counteract the idealistic approach that was dominating the international relationship after the World War I (plato.stanford.edu, Political Realism in International Relations). Nixon and Kissinger’s national security process resembled Kennan’s and was also consistent with the past thought of Kissinger’s (Worley). It was between 1945 and 1960 when George F. Kennan made and implemented the containment doctrine which helped the United States to dominate over Soviet Union in the cold war. Keenan observed that all America needed was a global tactic that had the capacity to unite the American and the opinion against Soviet Union. Many people favored Nixon and Kissinger’s policy more because it dealt with crisis management on a much better scale and had set their target to meet the bigger picture. But Gaddis also believed that both Nixon and Kissinger took the containment theory and altered them to be used during the times of Vietnam War. The approaches of Nixon and Kissinger were based on the realist tradition which is why they designed their foreign policy on this theory. People do question the Cambodian bombing but Kissinger and Nixon are both appreciated for their dedication and hard work that restored the orders to the

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Lab report - Essay Example Further, the overall RPM range for the AC motor was approximately 1/3 that of the rpm range for the DC motor. Likewise, the AC motor was ultimately providing the power and driving the DC motor. Lastly, the AC motors in synchronous speed decrease was tangentially related to the decrease in AC motor drive frequency. The underlying goal for these experiments was to provide a deeper understanding into the ultimate effects of many of the mechanical and electrical factors that impact upon the performance of a DC motor. Furthermore, the lab itself provides for an understanding of the effects of closed loop and open loop speed control mechanisms; utilizing linear and pulsed circuitry. The underlying necessity for fixed speed motors is ultimately an issue of sensory features. For instance, a compact disc player requires an electric engine to keep a minimum basic rpm range as a means of accurately reading the CD itself and translating this information into audible sound. Accordingly, a fixed magnet motor is composed of the following core components listed below in Figure 1.0 as was noted, the passing current creates a magnetic field which in turn produces torque that drives the engine itself. This is a basic compound and construct of any electrical loader. Yet, in order to ensure that the Armature begins rotating it is necessary for the torque of the engine to overcome the mechanical load that it is faced with. Additionally, the relationship between torque and current is known as a torque constant. As the armature begins to rotate, it circumvents the magnetic field of the magnets. Accordingly, and electromotive force is required and generated in order to supply the voltage that is necessary to engage this particular operation. Lastly, it must also be understood that winding and the action of the commentator brushes requires its own level of resistance as well. The exercise attempted to

Sam Houston Summary Essay Example for Free

Sam Houston Summary Essay Sam Houston had to face many obstacles since he was a little boy. He had very little education; however he educated himself with many readings from his father’s library. Houston served as governor for Tennessee and Texas. He also served as a United States senator for thirteen years. . He befriended General Andrew Jackson and remarried three times. Houston was made the first president of the Republic of Texas in 1836 and was re-elected in 1841. He gave many speeches throughout the years. Houston died on July 26, 1863, in Huntsville, Texas. Sam Houston, fifth child of Samuel Houston and Elizabeth Paxton Houston, was born on March 2, 1793. His father, Samuel Houston, a member of the revolutionary member, went bankrupt in 1806 and had no other option but to sell the Timber Ridge and move west to Tennessee. His father died the same year! A year later, Sam Houston, his mother, and his eight siblings resided south of Knoxville in Maryville, Tennessee. At the age of fourteen, Sam Houston had little education but spent a large amount of time reading books in his late father’s library. He also spent a great amount of time clearing land and developing a farm. The family decided that he would work as a clerk in a store because in his brother’s eyes he wasn’t doing anything worthwhile. Sam showed no interest in this job which resulted in his disappearance from the job and home. He crossed the Tennessee River with the Cherokee Indians. Houston joined a band of approximately three hundred Cherokees led by Chief Oo-loo-te-ka. The chief liked Sam greatly that he soon adopted him and gave him the name â€Å"Colonnen†. Colonnen refers to â€Å"The Raven† which is a symbol of good luck to the Indians. He went into debt due to bringing gifts home to his Indian friends each time he went to visit his family. At the age of nineteen, Houston had to find a way to get out of debt and decided to become a teacher. He charged the students a higher rate than usual which only took six months to pay off his debts. At the beginning it was just a way to make money but he soon realized that he had a strong interest in teaching. The War of 1812 had begun shortly after Houston began teaching. His career ended really soon. â€Å"Euclid soon defeated him and ended whatever thoughts he may have had of a permanent careers as a teacher. Houston was not amongst the early volunteers of the war; however he decided to enroll in a local academy to further his education in math. On March 24, 2013, Sam decided to enlist in the United States Army. Within a few weeks of training he became a sergeant. Nine months later, Sam was promoted to third lieutenant. Early in the 1814, Houston came under command of General Andrew Jackson. He became really good friends with Jackson for approximately thirty years. During the war, Houston was wounded and General Jackson ordered him to stay out the rest of the battle. The Indians refused to surrender. Houston volunteered to lead the attack; however his men hesitated to go forth, Houston ran forward and the Indians ended up shooting him twice in the right shoulder. Jackson ordered the Cherokees to complete the battles which forced the Indians to sign the Treaty of Fort Jackson. This treaty consisted of giving up their claims to more than three-fifths of Alabama. Sam Houston was treated at one of their hospitals in eastern Tennessee and then transported back to Maryville. After the treatment he was assigned to the Southern Division of the United States Army. He was on light duty in the adjutant general’s office. On October 28, 1817 Houston was appointed federal subjacent to the Cherokees. At the age of twenty-five, on March 1, 1818 he resigned from the army and as Indian subagent too. Three months later, Sam Houston returned to Nashville to begin the study of law with Judge James Trimble. It only took Houston six months to learn and pass the bar examination. He then moved to Lebanon and opened a law office. In 1819, Houston was elected attorney general, and he then returned to Nashville. He was very successful and knowledgeable but he was not satisfied with the pay. He resigned in1820 in private practice in Nashville. â€Å"In 1823 he ran for the United States House of Representatives from the ninth Tennessee District. † (pg 15) Houston’s second term ended on March 1827, he went back to Tennessee to run for governor. He put himself in the public’s eyes by attending political rallies and any events that included the voters. â€Å"In early September he defeated Cannon by more than 11,000 votes in a total of more than 75,000 and won the governorship. † (19) In 1824 Sam Houston was introduced to a woman named Eliza Allen. She was only twenty and Sam Houston was thirty-five at the time. He asked her father for his permission to marry his daughter. Her father gave him permission to wed his daughter. She did not love Sam; however her family pretty much pressured her into marrying Houston only because he was a successful man. She followed their command and accepted his proposal in October 1828. They exchanged wedding vows on January 22, 1829 at the Allen’s home. Unfortunately, three months after the marriage his wife left him and went back home to her family. She refused to be with him and on April 16th Houston resigned as governor of Tennessee. It is still unknown why she left Houston, although she was pressured into marrying Houston. Sam and his companion, H.Haralson, journeyed down the Cucumber River to Ohio on April 23, 1829. He ended up in Arkansas with his Cherokee friends. His companion continued to travel leaving Houston behind with his adopted father and friends. Sam Houston soon discovered that the Cherokee nation had to move out of Arkansas and into east-central Oklahoma. The Cherokees were worried that the whites were going to take their current land again. Houston became their advisor and a listener to the Cherokee tribe. â€Å"Houston departed to Washington to inform President Jackson that several Indian agents should be removed and the Treaty of 1828 honored. He traveled to Washington D. C. to inform how the Cherokees received unbroken promises and that they rather have money verses gold. Sam Houston wed another woman, Tiana, while still married to Eliza. It wasn’t a big deal because she was considered Indian and his other wife was Cherokee. Within time he got a weakness for alcohol. It started interfering with his everyday live, was turned down when he campaigned for a position on the Cherokee council, and he also hit his adoptive father. Soon after, his mother fell ill and was rushed back to her home in Tennessee where she died in September 1831. A month later he traveled back to the Cherokee nation. In April he was arrested and punished for striking congressman, Stanbery, with his cane. He was found guilty and received a reprimand. In October 1832, Houston started preparing for his trip to Texas; however his wife refused to go. Houston left her some of his possessions and then divorced her. Sam Houston set up headquarters in San Felipe and began to plan a defensive strategy against the Mexicans. The volunteer soldiers under Stephen Austin battled and successfully took San Antonio, killed Milam, and forcing General Cos to surrender. The soldiers believed that the war was over; however Houston was not convinced that it was over. He made a public announcement that Texas was in need of 5,000 trained men by March 1, 1836. While Houston and the men prepared for the war they were approached by Fannin and the two leaders that won at war in San Antonio. Fannin, Johnson, and Grant came in making promises to the soldiers causing thousands to leave Houston and to join their militia. Sam Houston continued to lead approximately sixty to seventy men. On January 20, Houston traveled to San Felipe to meet with Governor Smith. Houston spent the rest of February with the Cherokees and Indians in the northeast. After arriving at the convention site, Washington-on-the-Brazos, he received news that Santa Anna’s army had attacked Texas and â€Å"besieged† the Alamo and the remaining soldiers. The declaration of independence was adopted on March 2nd. Two days later, Houston had become â€Å"commander in chief of the land forces of the Texian army both Regulars, Volunteers, and Militia, while in actual service. † On March 11th, Houston reached Gonzalez and found 374 volunteers that were led by Edward Burleson. While preparing the men for war Houston received news that Santa Anna’s army had â€Å"taken† the Alamo and attacked and burned all of its defenders. Houston ordered Fannin and his army to retreat to Victoria. They were captured and murdered by the Santa Anna’s army. On April 20th, the battle began between Santa Anna and Houston’s soldiers. Unfortunately, Houston was injured during the battle. Houston’s army men had captured and killed many men causing Santa Anna to offer a peace treaty. Houston refused until both government leaders were present. Fortunately, Houston’s approach succeeded. Sam Houston and Eliza’s divorce was not final until 1837. Houston served as president for two years, December 1836 to December 1838. He was reelected in September 1840. In 1836, a small group of soldiers were attacked by the Mexican General Santa Anna. Houston’s army won the battle against the Mexican forces at San Jacinto and gained independence for Texas, opened up a law office, and promoted a land development after his term expired. He traveled to Mobile, Alabama to interest a wealthy merchant, William Bledsoe, in the Sabine City project. While visiting the Bledsoe estate Houston met Margaret Lea. They were married in Marion, Alabama, on May 9, 1840. They had eight children. Margaret convinced Houston to stop drinking and attend church. Houston continued to work towards annexation with the United States. He used the United States and Great Britain hatred to one another in hopes to make each country want to snatch up Texas so that the other country could not. With high hopes of joining with the United States, the United States still was unwillingly to annex Texas. In 1845, Texas became part of the United States. â€Å"Houston’s joyous moment at the approach of annexation was tempered by the death of Andrew Jackson on June 8, 1845. The family rushed to the Hermitage but arrived a few hours late. They attended the funeral and were guests at the Donelson plantation for several weeks. † (139) Meanwhile, Mexico was at war with Texas for ten years. Houston remained in Washington to work in support of the war. Houston left Washington in the spring of 1847 because his wife had surgery due to breast cancer. â€Å"Houston traded Raven Hill for land within a few miles of Huntsville and planned to build a home for his family. He remained in Texas for the rest of the year, keeping abreast of the war news as General Winfield’s Scott’s army took Mexico City. † (147) In January 1847, Sam Houston obtained a new six year senate term. Houston became a presidential candidate but Houston’s mind and heart was with his family. In 1852, Franklin Pierce was elected; however if Houston put in the effort he could have won. January 15, 1853, he was elected to a new six-year term as Senate. In October 1853, Houston’s family moved to Independence, a city fifty miles to the southwest, while leasing out his home in Huntsville. In 1859, Sam Houston appeared to be leaning toward retirement. Houston invited the public to vote in his favor; however he did not campaign. â€Å"Texans who wanted his leadership had drawn him into the contest, and they did the campaigning. Houston became the only man in the United States to serve as governor of two states. He promised funds for railroads, schools, river improvements, and a protector of Texas if Mexico should try to battle again. Houston was all about the people he served and not the political party. Some petitioned for him to run for president, but he refused to participate in the national convention. When Abraham Lincoln was elected president of the United States, Houston warned Texans that the civil war was going to happen if Lincoln violated the Constitution. The Texas convention removed Houston from office and replaced him with Lieutenant Governor Edward Clark. This resulted because Houston refused to take oath to loyalty to the newly formed Confederate States of America. He wanted to avoid war at all cost and declined Lincoln’s offer to use the federal troops to keep him in office and Texas in the Union. After leaving the Governor’s mansion, he continued to support Texas. Sam Jr. joined the Confederate Army, against his father’s advice, was wounded at the battle of Shiloh. He was reunited with his family but on crutches. Houston moved his family to Huntsville because United States â€Å"took† Galveston and â€Å"destroyed the Houston’s family’s main source of income. † (197) In the winter of 1863, Houston fell ill. He developed an awful cough and was diagnosed with pneumonia. His wife stayed by his side and heard his very last words before his death, â€Å"Texas†¦Texas†¦Margaret. † Texas and his family were very important to Sam Houston. Sam Houston, one of the most important political figures to Texas. Houston served as governor for Tennessee and Texas. He also served as a United States senator for thirteen years. . He befriended General Andrew Jackson. He remarried three times; however he had eight children with his third wife. Houston was made the first president of the Republic of Texas in 1836 and was re-elected in 1841. He gave many speeches throughout the years. He led a successful battle for Texas Independence. On July 26, 1863, Houston died of pneumonia in their â€Å"Steamboat House. † He will always be remembered!

Essay --

In the past, losing a limb and surviving often meant the start of a life with disability. Fortunately, through human ingenuity and research, biological engineering has helped change this. Mechanical hands that grasp and legs that walk can bring back the lost sense of a normal life and the outlook becomes brighter every year with each technological advancement. It is inherently within our nature to continue innovating and improving upon what already exists. This begs the question- how far will we go? This is an ethical question in the realm of that is just beginning to manifest itself. At the rate at which technology progresses and becomes more widely available, it is hard to not imagine a future in which one day replacement parts could just as, if not more efficient in some respects than fleshy body parts. Will doing so leave behind and disregard the fleshy vessels that make us human in the first place, or is this merely an extension of ourselves? Without being kept in check, there i s potential for significant ethical and social ramifications. In order to understand how and why this is worth concern, we must first examine the part of human psychology that acts as the source. This oddity lies in the caveat to the use of human-like robotics and prosthetics in terms of how the piece of technology is perceived by a third party. When something is clearly machine, it is viewed as such. However it has been consistently observed that as something becomes closer and closer to resembling a human or mimicking human-like traits, the aesthetic appeal plummets. This is known as the â€Å"uncanny valley†. For example, if a robotic face is colored to resemble the natural tone of skin, yet exhibits stiff and unnatural motions it is consistently viewed ... ...t a man born missing part of his legs is able to compete in sprinting Olympic events. However, it is unfair to other competitors when the extent of his handicap is unknown. If it were deemed that even with his state of the art prosthetics he was at a disadvantage, then he should be given the opportunity (given the adequate qualifying times held at the same standard as other runners) to race in the events he desires to. While there are currently very few other examples to which this situation can be compared to, the occurrences of similar scenarios have nowhere to go but up as innovation in biological engineering does. Ideally, precautions will be taken in order to avoid or minimize dividing people with something that would typically bring them together. To do so, researchers and society must make a conscious effort in order to bridge the gap of the uncanny valley.

Saussure and Bloomfield

The aim of this essay is to compare and contrast two important linguistics that reached a significant milestone in the history of Language. Their names are Leonard Bloomfield (April 1, 1887–April 18, 1949) and Ferdinand de Saussure (November 26, 1857– February 22, 1913). Leonard Bloomfield was an American linguist who led the development of structural linguistics in the United States during the 1930s and 1940s. Ferdinand de Saussure was a Swiss linguist who taught at the University of Geneva, whose ideas about language laid the foundation for many significant developments in linguistics in the early 20th century. Bloomfield came from the Neogrammarian School of linguistics. That means he focused on the historical aspects and evolution of languages. He studied particular languages, their history and how words are generated. Both Bloomfield and Saussure studied language as a structure or with a scientific basis. The main difference is that Bloomfield studied linguistics diachronically: its historical and comparative development. Saussure studied language synchronically: he made the comparison between language and chess. There is no necessity to know the history moves; you could understand the system just by looking at the board at any single moment. This is the synchronic study of Language. Another marked difference is that Bloomfield himself never suggested that it was possible to describe the syntax and phonology of a language in total ignorance of the meaning of words and sentences. His view was incomplete, as he studied part of the system and not the whole. In contrast to this, Saussure studied Language as a system, including all aspects of it. He considered the system has three properties: Wholeness, since the system functions as a whole. Transformation, as the system is not static, but capable of change. Self-Regulation, this is related to the fact that new elements can be added to the system, but the basic structure of it can not be changed. The conception of Language was different for each of them. Bloomfield believed that Language is related to stimulus response acquired by habit formation. He claimed it is used to satisfy human’s needs. On the other and, Saussure considered language as a multitude of signs, where each sign links a phonic sound (the signifier) with an idea (the signified). The reason why they differed in this conception is because Saussure studied it from a mentalist conception. He considered both the signifier and signified mental entities and independent of any external object. Opposite to that, Bloomfield argued that linguistics needs to be more objective if it is to become a real scientific discipline. He believed that the main target of linguistic inquiry should be observable phenomena, rather than abstract cognitive processes. Therefore, Bloomfield rejected the classical view that the structure of language reflects the structure of thought. As a consequence, they also differed in the conception of Language acquisition. According to Bloomfield, a child acquires language through repetition and stimulus-response. Through further habits, the child makes a start on displaced speech (he names a thing even when it is not present). Saussure, on the contrary, viewed language as having an inner duality, which is manifested by the interaction of the synchronic and diachronic, the syntagmatic and associative, the signifier and signified. Taking everything into consideration, both Saussure and Bloomfield had a significant impact on linguistics. Saussure is considered the founder of modern linguistic and cultural studies. He has influenced several fields such as philosophy, anthropology and semiology. He is the linguist who revolutionized the study of Linguistics, as he outlined his theory of language, in which he suggested the need to study language in a scientific way, rather than studying it in a cultural and historic context. Bloomfield, for his part, did more than anyone else to make linguistics autonomous and scientific. Although Bloomfield's particular methodology of descriptive linguistics was not widely accepted, his mechanistic attitudes toward a precise science of linguistics, dealing only with observable phenomena, were most influential. His influence waned after the 1950s, when adherence to logical positivist doctrines lessened and there was a return to more mentalist attitudes.

Autonomous work group an essential ingredient for effective organising? Essay

Following the needs of many businesses to adopt alternative forms of work design this paper tries to explain and make some sense about the effectiveness of autonomous work groups in organising. It will be argue the thesis that such groups have been, are and will be effective in some definite organisational setting. The assumptions underpinning this idea will be explored along the dialectic forming three sections. To understand this concept it seems important introduce notions of individual, group and explain why they are so central from an organisational point of view. Thus, the first part of this paper will present some psychological effects resulting through their interaction of these actors Moreover, being the idea of autonomous work group part of a complex system, it will be restrictive analyse its characteristics without locate it among others concepts produced by sociotechnical researchers. Thus, a broader analysis of sociotechnical system (STS) will be part of the second section. Difference between what STS aimed to achieve, what they really achieved, and/or what they are achieving today is still discussed. This lack of unanimous consensus lets the debate open to several interpretations, and offer the opportunity to explore and address few issues related to the self-managing groups. Hence, the last side of this paper will address a discuss about the role of management, the subordination of human criteria to the dictates of efficiency, the application to both linear and non-linear systems, and a movement toward a self-leading team type. The magnitude of such topic and the number of interesting studies surrounding this area offer to the author a dilemma regarding what should be treated and what should not. Obviously, having this script humanistic approach major evidence is given to people in organisation, and respectively team members, and management. Moreover, analysing the way in which the system adapted itself during the second half of the last century, it will be argued that organisations designed or redesigned in respect of human criteria in certain industries and environments, can reach a competitive advantage respect those that will not do it. In short, STS is an effective tool by which it is possible match both individual and organisational needs. Pursuing the paper this line of argument, issues related to politics, unions, and power, and other effects of identifications, ideology and control are not dealt in this paper neither because not relevant, nor because of secondary importance, rather, due to the limitation of the length. Individuals, Groups and Organisation To some extent groups always existed, even in USA -where in time of cold war ambitions were led to unbridled individualism, organisation used to split task into subtask, assigned it to various subunits, than these subunits divided subtask into sub-subunits and so on. Even if an organisation is formally organised according individual performance, the division of labour break down the organisation into groups. What does group means, and what needs a group fulfil for both organisation and individual? ‘A psychological group is any number of people who interact with one other, are psychologically aware of one other, and perceive themselves as group’ (Schein 1994), and are seen as group by the others from outside (Hackman 1987, in Brown 2003). If in everyday life, groups can be formed through a spontaneous or random meeting -such as four friends meets for chance in library, in organisational setting they have diverse origin. Basically, it is possible recognise two types of groups in organisation, those which are deliberately created by managers in order to fulfil the tasks required from the organisational mission, an those fulfilling psychological needs of individual beyond the minimum ones of doing their jobs; respectively formal and informal groups (Schein 1994). According to its duration the former can be of two types: permanent -such as the group of lecturer or/and professors forming the BOR depth at Lancaster University; or temporary -such as a matrix group of lecturers or/and professors committed in a project for a definite time or mission. Nevertheless, organisation takes an informal structure within which individuals interacting with others generates a group that fulfil their social needs. But contrary to the everyday life the interaction depend on defined physical location, being in fact their activity within the organisation limited by their tasks and mission to perform -such as the possibility to interact with people both meeting and working in the same office, depth, building and so on. Bearing in mind that groups can simultaneously fulfil diverse organisational functions and needs of their members, it useful here to distinguish these kinds of functions in ‘organisational and individual’ (Schein 1994). According to this partition, it is possible group organisational functions as those features coinciding with the mission of the organisation -i.e. working on a complex or interdependent task, generating new ideas or creative solutions, liaison or coordinating functions, facilitate the implementation of complex decision, or be a vehicle of socialisation or training. On the other hand, among needs group members can bring with them and groups can fulfil there are needs such as those of affiliation, sense of identification and maintain self esteem, establish and tests social reality, moreover, it reduce insecurity and anxiety. Appear now clear why groups are so important, from an organisational point of view it speed, facilitate, and improve the task-related functions. On the other hand, spending two third of our life within the workplace, meeting our psychological needs inn a group, and spending two third of our adult life in a work setting of various kinds, groups become a integral part of such work settings (Schein 1994:152). Thus, an enormous potential can be offered mixing up informal and formal functions, to comprehend it means to imagine how they can serve at the same both organisational and individual. Reed supported this thesis stating understand organisations means grasp the diverse political forces acting in it, nevertheless, decisions are not taken during a board of director, rather main actors discuss and reach agreement during a dinner on a golf course (2002). In other words, linking together individual’s needs and organisational functions to fulfil, by means of formal and informal organisation could be achieved, through effectiveness and the right balance with the social needs of employees, an organisational competitive advantage. The Socio Technical System (STS) Understand the dynamic process made up of individual’s needs interacting in organisational setting it is not as easy as at a first sight. After two decades in which the human relation (HR) approach allocate ‘attention to the employees, not work condition per se, that has the dominant impact on productivity (Peters & Waterman, cited in Moldaschl & Weber 1998:350), the sociotechnical group took another direction. Researches, associated with the work done by the Tavistock Institute in London, instead of concentrating on the enterprise as social system -where technology was not considered and workers were treated better whilst their job remained the same (Trist, in Moldaschl & Weber 1998), attempted to overcome both Tayloristic and HR approach of work design. Whereas the HR movement achieved the so-called ‘Hawthorne public relation effect’ -enforcing psychotechnics to deal with employees’ psychological ‘wealth’, STS underlined the importance of a real design of tasks (Emery 1978). The idea of STS implies that any productive organisation or part thereof is a combination of technology and social system in mutual interaction to each other. Each determines each other and the nature of work determines the type of organisation that develops among workers, whilst the sociopsychological characteristics of the worker determine the manner in which a given job will be performed (Schein 1994). This idea led to the development of an open system theory in which organisations imports and converts various things from its environment -such as people, money equipment, raw material, and so on, and exports products, services and waste materials which result from the conversion’s process (Schein 1994). Importing people the organisation have to deal with individual’s needs, values, norms, and expectations, as a consequence, to be effective the organisation have to take in account both the nature of job and those of people. Through the Norwegian â€Å"Industrial Democracy Programmes† sponsored by the government, the employer association, and unions, STS achieved a value-free research far from the political justification for self-governance and from the economic justification of self-regulation (Susman in Moldaschl & Weber 1998:350). It led their researchers to claim a third realization through the so called principle of industrial democracy -whilst for others concentrating their efforts on the micro level of participation, and neglecting representative forms of industrial democracy they realized just direct workplace democracy (Blackler 1982 in Moldaschl & Weber 1998). Another important concept is based on the joint optimisation through which it is possible developing design solutions that consider human criteria and efficiency criteria equally (Brown 2003). Thus, it â€Å"enables a best match in this way†¦such as Emery’s ‘nine-step model’ that aims to reduce â€Å"key variances† in, and between work systems, and to control them by â€Å"self-regulation† of the workers’ (Moldaschl & Weber 1998:360). This self-regulation, interdependence and self-governance, draw attention to decisions that ca be delegated to work groups that, in function of these, are defined as autonomous work group. In some industries has been discovered that higher levels of productivity and quality can be achieved giving clusters of tasks to a work group (Findlay et al, 2000; Barker 1999; Knights and McCabe 2000; Muller 1992; Sewell 1998); such ‘autonomous work groups are then made responsible for producing entire product such a radio, an engine’ (Schein 1994). The idea was to group several workers -organised in multifunctional structure with flexible job rotation, in a spatially and organisationally limited production unit, share a common task that is divided into interdependent sub task, and assume share responsibility over the long term. Among its criteria can be notice boundary maintenance (Moldaschl & Weber 1998:360). What sociotechnology group tried to achieve through the implement of autonomous work group is a way of simultaneously satisfying psychological and task needs (Buchanan 2000:29). In other words, a whole group is provided the opportunity to design and manage a total integrated task, thus permitting workers to fulfil their social and self actualising needs within the context of the work situation’ (Herbst 1962 in Schein 1994:195). Nevertheless being the role of management present to some extents, it is more correct to speak about semi autonomous work groups. Among the variety of semi-autonomous work group, it is useful to adopt the three forms identified by Brown (2003). The composite fully multi skilled -as in the Tavistock Institute Coal Mining studies where miners learnt and performed diverse task; the matrix form -as in Fiorelli’s idea of quality circle where a group of people, having different specialised functions, overlapped competences (1998); and the network where individuals are far but frequently in contact to each other through information technologies such as teleconferencing to exchange knowledge – from which the ongoing ‘knowledge management team’ (Bell, Blackler and Crump in Fulop & Linstead 1999:228). This tri-partition can be associated with changes in the second half of twentieth century in western society where ‘technological and organisational improvement led radical changes in economical sector’ (Ackroyd and Lawernson 1995, Piore & Sabel 1984, Zuboff 1998). Especially during the last three decades of the twenties century, after a climate of tension, a new international distension opened up new opportunities for businesses and ventures, new markets were found available to be explored and offered new competitive advantages to companies, (Hutton 2002). The re-design of the organisational structure bring in fact some effects within the socio-economical system where it is embedded. International markets got crowded; pressure and competition increased forcing companies to redesign their organisation. To face this turbulent environment Trist et al propose: ‘an alternative design based on the redundancies of functions: for individual they create role rather mere jobs; for the organisation they bring into being a variety-increasing system rather than the traditional control by variety reduction†¦(through) continuing development of appropriate new values concerned with improving the quality of working life by keeping the technological determinants of worker behaviour to a minimum in order to satisfy social and psychological needs by the involvement of all. Autonomous working groups, collaboration instead competitions, and reduction of hierarchical emphasis, are some of the requirements for operating effectively in modern turbulence (in Pugh & Hickson 1996:182 -emphasis added) As stated by Trist within this theoretical pattern, autonomous work group is an essential ingredient for the effective organising. Discussion and conclusion The role of management seems to be an essential component to the achievement of the best match within the system for both Blackler and Brown (1978), and Fox (1995), whilst strangely, STS approach does not seems to explicitly address neither the problem of management, nor those of managerial control. Differently, Knights & McCabe (2000) exploring what team working means for employees’ lives within an automobile manufacture company, affirm that employees as well as managers are capable of exercise power interpreting and reinterpreting management strategies. Stressing the accent on autonomy, managerial role need to be redefined to support and favourite tasks of group members. Accordingly, to meet autonomous work group needs a manager should be a good diagnostician, trying to be flexible enough to understand and to vary their own behaviour in relation to the needs of their subordinates (Schein 1994). Nevertheless, it is useful remember that individuals’ needs are not just meet through groups, they have another set of necessity that are fulfilled outside the group, alone, as well as with a friend. What I am addressing here is what Costea and Crump called the standardisation of individual -or better how to make an individual as unique as its mate (2003). In other words to be effective in self managing groups members have to maintain their equilibrium that permits them to keep and evolve its personality: members are not asked to follows rules, rather to make decisions. For this reason Often, the practical one does not confirm what in academic setting appear feasible from a conceptual level. Even for the best social scientist it is quite hard, if not impossible, individuate a priori the huge amount of forces arising from the combination of interests and pressure groups in which his theory will become part. In practical conditions, sociotechnical projects sometimes failed because they subordinate human criteria to the dictates of efficiency or because they become victim of a political conflicts (Blackler, 1982; Kelly, 1978; Sydow, 1985; Pasmore, 1995 in Moldaschl & Weber 1998), making it often impossible to translate joint optimisation of human goals and efficiency into reality. ‘Although mainly consisting of psychologist of work and organisation, the â€Å"classical† Tavistock representatives of the STS approach does not regard its primary goal to be the far reaching consideration of human criteria in the design process of a work system. Rather they st rive for an optimal compromise between technical, economic, and human work design objectives’ (Moldaschl & Weber 1998:362). Changing our analysis from a classical to more contemporaneous perspective, a diverse slant come from the observation that self managing groups are still effective, but they loose their grip on organisation when have to deal with the no-routine office work of management and professional -being these set of practices developed for linear work systems (Fox 1995). Diverse from Pugh and Hickson (1986), Fox notes that not always the use of autonomous work group seems to be appropriate, in fact ‘the creation of recticular organisation (characterised by a fluid distribution of information and authority that changes are required) may be appropriate†¦in some non linear work systems (1995:103). STS’ concepts have contributed to improve design and redesign of many work systems, however most of the successful experiences occurred in well-defined linear systems-characterised by a sequential process of input-output, rather in unclear defined non-linear system -where the absence of the in-out property makes it difficult to separate different conversion flows into well-bounded entities (Pava, 1986). Nevertheless, a major revolution is not required to broaden the applicability of STS principles: Modifying the practices employed in STS design to include non-linear work systems is consistent with the essential precepts of STS design: open system analysis, a best match of social and technical subsystems, redundant functions over redundant parts, systemic interrelationships between design factors, self-design, and critical specification (Pava 211). In this capacity to adapt itself in both changing organisational requirements and environment, I think should be recognised the bigger strength of STS. Becoming this adaptability without distort any principle, the approach seems to be relevant especially nowadays, seeking organisations new means of empowerment to boost the productivity in increasingly turbulent environment. A final consideration is due to the work Manz who argue, the future of self-managing groups seems be oriented to lead workers to lead themselves (1992). During this movement toward a self-leading team type of work design, the latter identify some contingency factors relevant to this transition such as: nature of workers; work context; new manufacturing techniques; environment; and organisational system. However, this model seems more likely applicable in such culture where both high trust to workers and decentralisation of power is given -i.e. UK as opposite to Japan and Germany. In fact, ‘Movement toward self-leading team work likely to require significant involvement of the work force in determining the direction of the organisation as well as carrying out that direction, and the opportunity for the work teams to influence that direction, especially as it relates to their specific work performance’ (Manz 1992). Within this framework, it possible imagine shift from traditional & participative leadership to a self management role of leader, in doing it, the new role will be to lead members’ group to lead themselves (Manz & Sims 1987). Being both the power shifting from managers to team members, and the latter able to distinguish true managerial aptitudes from artificial (Knights & McCabe 2000), a certain amount of resistance from the former could be assumed. It leads to pay attention on the way in which managers implement these set of practices. In conclusion, due to its adaptability to technological innovations, and its flexibility in linear and non linear systems autonomous work group could seems even more actual today than during the second half of the second century. Its democratic principles and the democratic way in which tasks are thought and accomplished, seems to make this system the most appropriate within those political environment in which principles of democracy are used. This thesis seems reinforced from the growth of lean systems and consequently from practices as Just in Time, Business Process Re-engineering, or Total Quality Management in those organisational setting where work design diverse from human centred. On the base of both the literature proposed, and the assumption resting on this paper, an important feature seems emerge. For those organisations pursuing human relations and democratic policies, autonomous work group permits both individual and organisations to pursue their own interests. Not just offering the opportunity to decrease alienation filling their social needs to the former, and to reduce practice such as of absenteeism, sabotage, and achieve that commitment and loyalty, to the latter. Rather it seems the best compromise between capitalism and working class since the first industrial revolution to nowadays. An effective tool capable to improves and re-defines the boundaries of the psychological contract and consecutively boosts productivity and reduces costs. To create effective self-managing groups become central the role of top management in planning and develop a long-term program made of continuous investment in work design research, and in staff and management programs (Pearson 1992). It will allow a deep understanding about the dynamics of members’ needs, a constant design, a re-negation of the task requirements, and to avoid both mismanagement, and the establishment of repetitive alienating tasks. Finally, to figure out this sophisticated topic, a broader research should analyse the interrelation and influences of related issue such as: identifications; role of control; ideology of team, politico-economic and socio-cultural peculiarity of the society; in which the organisation will decide to implement self management group working. Within this system, autonomous work group seems to be not a problem to be solved, rather a solution to deal today with the confluence of tensions resulting from yesterday’s decisions.