The Decline Of The Paleolithic Age - 1233 Words

A. Humans began migrating across the globe during the Paleolithic Age. The human species originated in Eastern Africa around the African Great Lakes. From there, they spread out all over Africa. Then they moved out of Africa into Southwestern Asia. They migrated toward Europe and from Eastern Asia down through the Pacific Islands and Australia. Many historians argue over how humans populated the Americas, but most believe that they traveled on a land bride, connecting Russia to North America during the Ice age. Once they reached North America, the Paleolithic people migrated downward until they reached the tip of South America. The spread of the human species an impressive achievement of the Paleolithic Age. B. Agriculture was started during the Neolithic Revolution. The people in the Middle East were the first to develop farming. Gradually, the knowledge spread to other communities in South Africa, India, North China, and Southeast Asia. Agriculture emerged because of the end of the Ice Age. It became harder to hind animals to hunt and farming provided a reliable source of food. C. Sedentary agriculture lead to many changes in society. Farming gave people a reliable resource for food, which could support a lot more people compared to hunting. Because it created a larger population of people, it was harder to migrate in a nomadic life style. Thus, people began building permanent homes and villages. Agriculture also caused the invention and development of new techniques andShow MoreRelatedRole Of Women During The Paleolithic Period774 Words   |  4 Pagesof women changed between the Paleolithic and Neolithic time periods. During the Paleolithic Age, women and men had equal position in society. They both helped in the raising of children and the act of obtaining food for their families. The role of women would soon change for the worse in the Neolithic time period. They were left with little social, economic, and religious status, and the large burden of raising children almost singlehandedly. During the Paleolithic time period, people traveled inRead MoreThe World s Largest Hot Dry Land Desert1372 Words   |  6 Pagesover eleven African states: Egypt, Mauritania, Mali, Algeria, Chad, Sudan, Niger, Tunisia, Morocco, and Western Sahara. Desertification, or arable land degradation, has occurred in the Sahel over the past ten thousand years, dating back to the ice age. During the Pre-Classical era many ancient civilizations found home at the Nile River Valley. Plentiful monsoon rains permeated the Sahel, but water on the surface of the Sahel has decreased significantly as desertification has inversely increased,Read MoreHistory Of The World. Arguement: Throughout All Of Human1642 Words   |  7 Pagesthe Paleolithic period, humans grouped together in small societies such as tribes, and survived by gathering plants and hunting wild animals.The Paleolithic is characterized by the use of stone tools, although at the time humans also used wood and bone tools. Humankind gradua lly evolved from early members of humanity, who used simple stone tools. They transformed into fully behaviorally and religious modern humans or Homo sapiens during the Paleolithic era. During the end of the Paleolithic RevolutionRead MoreHealth Decline and Population Growth of the Neolithic Revolution 909 Words   |  4 Pagescharacterizations of hunter-gatherers are those collected in Man the Hunter which suggests â€Å"that Paleolithic populations had abundant resources and could be considered the earliest affluent society† (Armelagos et al 1991:13). These new findings have causes anthropologists to wonder if populations during the Neolithic really did increase and if these populations were healthier than those of the Paleolithic. Was the Neolithic Revolution a good thing for the human species? Scientists believe the populationRead MoreThe Paleolithic Era Were Living Through Three Glacial Ice Ages1444 Words   |  6 Pages61) One condition about the Paleolithic Era were living through three glacial ice ages. The climate was overall mild there and the conditions were okay until conditions started to deteriorate and cool down. Humans were able to adapt into colder conditions. (Big History Book) Another great characteristic added to the Paleolithic Era was foraging. It was viewed as hunter gathering. All of their food were plants, roots, nuts, and animals . They were migrating to far places, gathering local plantsRead MoreAshford His 103 (World Civilizations I) Entire New Course Essay1446 Words   |  6 PagesHunter-Gatherers. Although most students begin by assuming settled farming life was better than that lived by hunter-gatherers, closer acquaintance with full Paleolithic Hunter-Gatherer life shows us many aspects that could be considered easier than that of very early, settled Neolithic farmers. Would you agree? Summarize the aspects of the lives of Paleolithic Hunter-Gathers and Neolithic settled far mers. Evaluate at least two of these aspects about the Hunter-Gatherer life that seem more positive as wellRead MoreThe Paleolithic And Neolithic Period Of Prehistory, Man And Woman1747 Words   |  7 PagesDuring the Paleolithic and Neolithic time periods in prehistory, man and woman played close to equal roles in the society. There were many factors leading to the rise in the patriarchal society, but access to food was one of the main reasons. During the Paleolithic and Neolithic times, both man and woman had to work to get food for their families in separate, but equally as important ways. Since the invention of the plow, most the world’s civilizations have been patriarchal societies. BeforeRead MoreEssay on Factors Leading to The Collapse of Past Societies1693 Words   |  7 Pagescollapsed due to environmental damages. Firstly, the perfection of hunting in the stone age had proved to be the first progress trap for paleolithic hunters. As technological innovations g rew, new weapons were produced making them lighter, sharper, and more deadly than previous tools. Hunters then resorted to driving entire herds over cliffs. This method of hunting lead to the widespread extinction of game. Paleolithic hunters killed off their hosts and drove species after species to extinction. As aRead MoreSociology Of Art : A Reader1625 Words   |  7 Pageschange, so does not only what is portrayed in art, but also how art is portrayed itself. And, in relation to the portrayal of art and the materials it produces, its importance in the eyes of the people, and it is this, in turn, that leads to the decline and/or rise of art at different times through history. This information shows that the arts’ importance have dropped which is a problem because without our culture and society would suffer greatly. In the book â€Å"Evolution in art: As illustrated byRead MoreIndian History : The Indian Sub Continent2414 Words   |  10 Pageslead to the partition of India and the creation of the republic of India and the adoption of the constitution. On the Indian sub continent oldest artifacts have been found dated from lower or early Paleolithic period 2.6 million years ago to 2 lakhs years before the present. In this lower Paleolithic era the earliest human settlement in south Asia was identified with the help of the abundance of stone tool assemblage. Sohanian culture and Acheulian culture were the two earliest distinct culture and

Are Leaders Born or Made Free Essays

The definition of leadership is the art of motivating a group of people to act towards achieving a common goal. Put in even simpler terms, the leader is the inspiration and director of the action. He or she is the person in the group that possesses the combination of personality and skills that makes others want to follow his or her direction (Ward). We will write a custom essay sample on Are Leaders Born or Made or any similar topic only for you Order Now Which brings us to the most basic and most often-asked question in all leadership development, are great leaders born or made? Some people believe that leaders are born with the set of skills to become a successful leader. While others believe that leadership can be learned and developed through life. With that being said I am sure we have all been told once or more in our lives that leaders are born, not made; that leadership is about ego, and nice guys finish last (Kjerulf, 2009). Well think again my friends, leaders are not born, they are made. What makes someone a good leader is the aspect of discovery. It is the set phrase of a person at their finest whose endeavor is to change something for the better and to expand this forthcoming in others. Many individuals often get caught up in believing that leadership is based on a title or position but in reality this is far from the truth. Leadership qualities are derived by any individual who is enabled and encouraged to express themselves while working with purpose and meaning. Leadership is a process in which leaders and followers engage to achieve mutual goals. We are all leaders and followers at different times. â€Å"Followership† is not a passive role but a dynamic one: Followers ensure that the leader follows the purpose (Owen, 2002). Leadership entails the following components; passion, values, vision, knowledge, drive, and creativity. All components that develop from happiness and delightfulness in terms of something an individual enjoys, if a person is happy, you are going to seek a means to find the greatest good for the greatest number of people, making it possible for the individual to find a way to lead others to their happiness. Every individual has their own area of talent and inclination for success. These attributes, the things that individuals are passionate about, are the reasons why every one person can be a leader in their own means of enjoyment. Take for example a very quite and extroverted individual who has grown up throughout his/her entire life being an individual rather than a leader. He/she stumbles upon something they are madly passionate about, volunteering at animal shelters. In order for these thousands of animals to be saved and not euthanized, these volunteers have to find each and every animal a home within a certain amount of days. Being the extroverted individual he/she is, they reluctantly take a step back, but realize that without their strong passion and desire to lead his/her fellow volunteers; these animals will be put to sleep in a matter of no time. The simple meaning behind this example is that it is not about knowing every piece of advice on how to become a successful leader, or having the proper training, or being born with a set of skills to be able to lead; but rather it is simply about having the passion and strength to lead individuals in a subject that he/she feels so strongly about in order to benefit the most number of people. How to cite Are Leaders Born or Made, Papers Are Leaders Born or Made Free Essays Leadership sets the tone for team development, and this implies its necessity in an organization. Possessing appropriate leadership skills drive a team in meeting its objectives. The means of acquiring such skills may be through nature or developmental programs. We will write a custom essay sample on Are Leaders Born or Made? or any similar topic only for you Order Now The debate on whether leaders are made or born continues to trigger many thoughts, but none has come conclusively. This paper goes through the skills required for effective leadership, and how such skills can be acquired, in an attempt to solve the puzzle of the debate. (b) Leaders are born and made. The question as to whether leadership is genetically acquired or developed remains a debate for decades evoking many opinions. Some scholars are of the idea that leaders are born naturally intelligent, charismatic, visionary, strategic and able to rally and plan for teams around them. Some believe that leadership is an ongoing experience that requires training, development, mentoring and coaching. Some are of the opinion that leaders are both born and made whereby they possess natural intelligence, which is enhanced with education, training, and mentorship. Developing a conclusive statement on this debate requires an understanding of leadership; a leader is an individual who establishes directions for a team of individuals, one who gains commitments from the team towards the established direction, and one who motivates the team to achieve the direction’s expected outcomes (Manktelow and Brodbeck, 2006). A leader needs not to exercise the three elements in a leader’s definition, in the eyes of other teams or fellow leaders. This is so because every team has its objectives and the means to attain the objectives differ amongst teams. The implication is that to fit in different scenarios or teams an effective leader needs some intelligence, which cannot be attained by learning, but that which is a talent or acquired naturally. This is important in understanding the needs of every team and fitting into the needs of every team. In a majority of cases, naturally acquired skills and abilities play a crucial role in developing ones personality, interpersonal, and motivational skills, which motivates one to lead. However, having leadership genes is not all; work experiences, education, mentorship, opportunities, and being a role model, are necessities that craft effective leadership. These are attained through learning, and from experiences. The implication is that leaders learn to lead through education programs, mentorship, experiences, and while playing different leadership roles (Kets, 2004). Successful CEOs, like Bob McDonald of Procter Gamble, Ginny Rometti of IBM, and John C. Maxwell started with a set of the team leading skills, and associated this with furthering their skills in different colleges. Such drives, ambitions, emotional stability, and extraverted personalities may develop genetically. However, possessing such traits does not mean that these leaders are effective; they learn from experiences and challenges, which demand developmental skills. To prepare for change of roles, they require prerequisite competencies so that they can communicate, shape strategies, solve problems, excel, and have the capability to inspire and motivate others (Manktelow and Brodbeck, 2006). This, therefore, implies that leadership is acquired genetically, but requires to be nurtured if one is to be classified as an effective leader. Having leadership genes is not enough as such intelligence may not be diverse in meeting the needs of different groups. It requires nurturing, development and acquisition of skills so that one becomes flexible in coping with different personalities, and also motivates others (Kets, 2004). (c) Conclusion. Leadership is partly natural, partly nurtured and partly to self ability (Manktelow and Brodbeck, 2006). Most debaters’ in whether ‘leaders are born or made’ overlook the self creative ability and nurturing element in defining leadership. However, being a leader by nature does not make a leader. Additionally, the passion of leadership cannot be achieved through experiences, and other developmental programs; it requires a natural inspiration that comes from within an individual (Kets, 2004). Leadership, therefore, is both born and made. How to cite Are Leaders Born or Made?, Papers

My Arts Organization Volunteer Project Essay Example For Students

My Arts Organization Volunteer Project Essay Because of my anticipation to seeing the extra credit speakers at the Industry Networking Club, and by now you probably have read many papers on the ILL theater departments, will write about the Bottom Lounge for my volunteer report as opposed to the ILL theater, drama, and contemporary dance apartment. The Bottom Lounge is a relatively new music venue, which was reopened in 2008. The original Bottom Lounge had closed down in 2005 by the Chicago Transit Authority (CAT) in order to make room for the new platform extension for the Red Line Belmont train stop. The new location of the Bottom Lounge had originally been a car mechanic and repair shop located near the intersection of Lake Street and Ogden Avenue but was completely refurnished to be the music venue that it is today. This is actually a great location because it has a lot trotter parking surrounding the venue so everyone who drives can mind a free place to park, The Bottom Lounge was created to bring the people of Chicago a premier music venue for punk music. While the Bottom Lounge does have a wide variety in concert genres, the heavily dominating genre no doubt is punk The mission of the Bottom Lounge is to bring live music fans and followers to a great music venue in downtown Chicago for a fun filled evening, and also provide easy and free transportation for the people attending the bar area activities to the United Center for Blackjacks games which is located just a few blocks away. The structure of the Bottom Lounge is fairly common among sic venues. The executive personnel, in this case would be the owners of the music venue. While they do not come to the venue on a day-etc:-day basis by any means, they approve all Of the big decisions before they get finalized. However there are several different managers at the Bottom Lounge, there is a manager over promotion, to make sure that concerts get booked at the venue, there is also a manager over the restaurant and bar area, there is a manager of security, a manager over sound, and then there is a production manager. All of these managers monitor the necessities in their individualized areas and make sections on how to carry out the tasks and ultimately get things done on time. The bylaws that pertain to this music venue is that the managers make their own decisions but the owners look over what is going on in big picture decisions for the venue and will frequently come to see what kind of decisions and activities are being done and either make sure they stop or proceed. The programs that happen at the Bottom Lounge have a huge variety although heavily in favor of punk music as mentioned. But the concerts can range anymore trot singer- songwriters like Daniel Johnston, to hip-hop artists like Danny Brown, or punk teal bands like In Flames. However, since the Bottom Lounge is onto non-for- profit their primary objective at the end of the day is to make some money _ A few times a month a wedding party or some sort of organization will rent out one of the venues for the night and host their own event. What is unique about the Bottom Lounge and its budget is that it very heavily relies on that particular year. One year the music venue may be able to book many more big-named sellout shows than other years. The bigger the name of the artist, the more it typically Will cost them to book the show. But since the artist is better known, tickets sell for higher prices. Concert touring schedules also depend heavily on the year, many artists wont tour certain years to work on albums or Other matters, and with a slower year, turns lower profits for the venue. Because of the unpredictable yearly income, the venue runs heavily off of unpaid internships to volunteer and help them with the workload. .u75048ba2d6b2712fa783f922f4a63752 , .u75048ba2d6b2712fa783f922f4a63752 .postImageUrl , .u75048ba2d6b2712fa783f922f4a63752 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u75048ba2d6b2712fa783f922f4a63752 , .u75048ba2d6b2712fa783f922f4a63752:hover , .u75048ba2d6b2712fa783f922f4a63752:visited , .u75048ba2d6b2712fa783f922f4a63752:active { border:0!important; } .u75048ba2d6b2712fa783f922f4a63752 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u75048ba2d6b2712fa783f922f4a63752 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u75048ba2d6b2712fa783f922f4a63752:active , .u75048ba2d6b2712fa783f922f4a63752:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u75048ba2d6b2712fa783f922f4a63752 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u75048ba2d6b2712fa783f922f4a63752 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u75048ba2d6b2712fa783f922f4a63752 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u75048ba2d6b2712fa783f922f4a63752 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u75048ba2d6b2712fa783f922f4a63752:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u75048ba2d6b2712fa783f922f4a63752 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u75048ba2d6b2712fa783f922f4a63752 .u75048ba2d6b2712fa783f922f4a63752-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u75048ba2d6b2712fa783f922f4a63752:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: War is one of the most tragic things in our world EssayIf you are an intern for long enough and a job opens up they will probably end up hiring you. Just 2 of the 5 people that were on the payroll in the music venue area had been interns but now work there. The Bottom Loungers yearly activities revolve around its bar which is open to am most nights for the local bar scene, the restaurant also helps turn a profit tort the venue, but what is truly unique about the Bottom Lounge is the fact that there are two in house venue spaces. The first venue located on the main floor is the main space where the bigger name artists go. That area holds 700 people, and has an additional bar located on the inside, The upstairs venue is both smaller in size, which only holds a maximum of 350 people but the acts that appear there are typically less well known. Additionally, upstairs has an outdoor patio that overlooks a portion of the Chicago skyline, a bar, and is much cheaper for 3rd parties to rent if the space is not booked for a concert already compared to the largeness space. Because a place like the Bottom Loungers schedule is always differing, there are no members, but the participants are the people that buy tickets to the shows, buy drinks, and eat at the restaurant. Since had had an internship at the Bottom Lounge previously, it made getting into the swing of things easy once again when I asked if I could volunteer again for this project. Basically What did was help them run the venue for an evening. Every time someone goes to a concert. They see the concert room all set up. See the employees at their posts, the stage all prepared and ready to go. What people dont tend to realize is the immense amount of work that goes into getting the shows up and running. My long night that volunteered for this project involved me getting there around pm to help make sure all the posters were hung up where they are supposed to be. People often will go through the poster area and just tear ones down that they want to keep, which is good self promotion for us, UT it requires someone on a nightly basis to make sure that all of the posters are hung before the shows for the evening, Then had to go help set up the upstairs stage, by bringing over all of the pieces tooth stage and sound equipment. Later went on to also run the box office by selling more tickets to the show that night and by giving people wristbands for admittance and re-entry. Later also did the light show for the band because often bands dont bring their own lights or a person to work them and need someone to run the lights to the rhythm of their sic for there Once the show was over I had to help take down the stage, clear out the greenrooms, and help the bands load out. That could take much longer than anyone might think because the concerts sometimes will have S or 6 different acts and each band sometimes will bring their own equipment which makes the backroom a horrible mess of different kick drums, snares, guitars, bases, preamp and pretty much every piece of musical equipment you can think Of. Once all Of the equipment got broken down into parts, loaded up into the moving containers, put on wheels, and loaded up in the tour vans, it was bout 2:AMA. What I found very interesting is that it felt like a lot Of the work done during the show (if not most of it) is done by the unpaid interns. .u62eaac18e29f4ddc1693757bddc2fde4 , .u62eaac18e29f4ddc1693757bddc2fde4 .postImageUrl , .u62eaac18e29f4ddc1693757bddc2fde4 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u62eaac18e29f4ddc1693757bddc2fde4 , .u62eaac18e29f4ddc1693757bddc2fde4:hover , .u62eaac18e29f4ddc1693757bddc2fde4:visited , .u62eaac18e29f4ddc1693757bddc2fde4:active { border:0!important; } .u62eaac18e29f4ddc1693757bddc2fde4 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u62eaac18e29f4ddc1693757bddc2fde4 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u62eaac18e29f4ddc1693757bddc2fde4:active , .u62eaac18e29f4ddc1693757bddc2fde4:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u62eaac18e29f4ddc1693757bddc2fde4 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u62eaac18e29f4ddc1693757bddc2fde4 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u62eaac18e29f4ddc1693757bddc2fde4 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u62eaac18e29f4ddc1693757bddc2fde4 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u62eaac18e29f4ddc1693757bddc2fde4:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u62eaac18e29f4ddc1693757bddc2fde4 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u62eaac18e29f4ddc1693757bddc2fde4 .u62eaac18e29f4ddc1693757bddc2fde4-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u62eaac18e29f4ddc1693757bddc2fde4:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Personal Philosophy of Success EssayWhat also found interesting when going back after have been in this class I really noticed how difficult yet necessary it is to appeal to your direct surroundings. For example, the Bottom Lounge utilizes its location in relation to the United Center in order to get people to the bar before the game, and to come back after the game as well. Thought having the inside look in the music venue once again after having had this class was very interesting. I learned that for the venue most of the money is not made from the tickets for the concert but in fact it is made off of alcohol sales. It is a little disappointing to me that more money cannot be made trot the music directly, but I suppose that where there are concerts people are going to buy alcohol so it is always a safe fall back for a venue to still produce some revenue when ticket sales are low. I also tint the whole idea of how many different kinds of contracts are made with bands interesting. Some contracts are paid out as a flat rate of say $500 but other contracts are things like 250 down payment and of the ticket sales. Also find the whole science of how determining which contract is most beneficial to the venue based on the projected turnout and ticket sales count. At the box office there Vass a clicker we counted for every person that entered the venue which also found interesting because the Venue would keep track Of those numbers and if turnouts were low they would have some security leave early to save money or if we signed another contract With the same band later in the future we would negotiate bas ed on the past turnout numbers. Another thing that learned from working at the music venue that they told me many times is how crucial interns are to a music venue because its free labor for them and they dont have to hire any other people. When my internship ended at the end of the summer they had already had backup interns waiting. To no surprise was the extra help a good thing when went back in to earn my volunteer hours for this project. This project was a great way of taking what we learned in class and reflect it on real world organizations that we have interests in.

Managing cultural diversity in the hospitality industry

Our environment determines our behaviors. People adopt certain communication styles, eating habits, and different modes of dressing depending on the type of social orientation. Symbols such as gestures and body language also form part of the human culture. Different people interpret symbols differently depending on their culture. As such, individual’s way of life determines how one perceives different ideas. Our way of life determines how we cope in a new environment with unfamiliar practices (D’Almeida, 2007).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Managing cultural diversity in the hospitality industry specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This paper, will discuss ways of managing culture diversity in the work place. I will highlight two cultural theories to demonstrate issues of cross-cultural differences. This paper will use a general comparative method and one example to demonstrate cultural shock. The US and Indian culture will be used in the examples. Culture shock When people are exposed to different cultures, they go through culture shock. This happens especially if individuals are not prepared to adapt to the new culture (Hall Dowling, and Welch, 2008). Individuals go through disappointments and develop unsocial behavior. This is common due to confusion and the inability to interact with others in the society (Henderson, 1994). In the hospitality industry, culture shock is more likely to be experienced because of diverse customers. Most tourists seek accommodation in hotels. Here, tourists experiences culture shock; they face different language, food, and lifestyle. Case study/ example Jimmy Steve is an employee of Sagret Hotel, one of the best restaurants in America. Last year, the management of Sagret Hotel opened a new branch in India. Because Jimmy Steve was experienced, he was transferred to India as the new manager of Sagret Hotel India branch. Jimmy Steve experienced the following problems. First, it was difficult for him to understand both verbal and non-verbal communication. This is because some gestures are interpreted differently in India from the way they are interpreted in the US. For instance, nodding the head in the US means yes to a question. In India, nodding of the head can mean yes or no. Hence, found it difficult to give clear directions to the workers who were Indians. The second challenge that Steve faced was that, he had difficulties eating the local foods. To him, the food was not appealing. He was also frustrated by different behaviors by the locals. Steve experienced very different custom and value system. He could not understand why there was discrimination based on caste system in the workplace. Steve also had issues with environment and hygiene. He was not able to understand why people would cook food next to places with sewer in the hotel.Advertising Looking for essay on cultural studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The safety of the hotel that was supposed to accommodate tourists was questionable for him. He observed that there were beggars around the hotel, which could scare away guests. He was surprised that in the hotel only women worked in the housekeeping and food departments. All waiters and cooks were women while men worked as cashiers and supervisors. Steve was told that it was taboo for men to cook since that was a job for women. Cross-cultural Theory In the hospitality industry, cross-cultural issues may be experienced because this sector receives customers from different regions. Dr. Milton Bennett argues that the more an individual encounters cultural differences, the more likely a person will become more competent working across cultures (Ward, 1999). People, who become competent in managing cross-cultural issues, can be able to adjust and adapt to different environments. Bennett has provided six stages of how individuals develop intercultural competence. The first step is the denial stage. At this level, individuals are not able to interact (Ward, 1999). Usually, people refuse to interact and behave aggressively. The second level is the defense stage. In this stage, individuals consider their culture superior over the other (Ward, 1999). Individuals usually criticize the other culture because it is â€Å"inferior.† At this stage, individuals will also defend their culture. The third step is the minimization stage. At this stage, individuals believe that all cultures share common values (Ward, 1999). People try to minimize cultural difference. The fourth level is the acceptance stage. At this stage, individuals are curious about the other culture. Although they may criticize the other culture, they will also acknowledge that not all cultures are similar. The next stage is the adaptation stage. At this stage, individuals start adapting the other culture. People begin to change communication style and s o on. The last step is the integration stage. At this stage, individuals are fully integrated with the other culture (Ward, 1999). Individuals’ adapt some behaviors from the other culture. Some people can even communicate using different styles (Ward, 1999). The cross-cultural theory portrays what happens to individual while adapting to a new culture. A tourist from the US visiting India would most likely stay in a hotel. While at the hotel or restaurant, the tourists experiences cross-cultural issues. The individual comes across different lifestyle, communication style, and unfamiliar food.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Managing cultural diversity in the hospitality industry specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In the example presented, it is clear that adapting to a new culture is a long process with many challenges. The link between this theory and issues of cultural diversity is that, the theory describ es steps that such individuals would go through to be integrated into a new culture. In the diagram the arrows represents the stages of development. Cultural Dimension Theory According to Cultural dimensions theory people are different from six dimensions. The difference in dimension is what determines how people can easily adopt to foreign cultures. This theory argues that societies have different power structure. Some cultures such as Indian culture encourage a gap between people in high positions and subordinates. While the US culture encourages equal power distance between leaders or managers and workers. This leads to democratic type of leadership. In a close power relation, people interact as equals irrespective of their formal positions. People can be able to provide their ideas and participate in decisions making. The second dimension is individualism verses collectivism. This refers to the level of integration in the society. The US is an example of an individualistic soci ety. The US culture is focused on individual achievement but others such as India encourage collective effort. Individuals have to forego their personal needs for common goals (Dean and Leung, 2003). According to the cultural dimension theory the third aspect that differentiates, people are the level of tolerance and avoidance practiced by a society. Tolerance and avoidance is an aspect used by the society to socialize its members on ways of dealing with anxiety and new ideas (Cornelius, 2002). The US has a high level of tolerance because of its diverse population compared to India. On the other hand, India has a homogenous culture. Hence, India encourages avoidance making it hard for Indians to adopt other cultures.Advertising Looking for essay on cultural studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The fourth dimension is masculine verses feminine. Socialization and allocation of gender roles is different depending on the society. The American society advocates for equality between men and women in the society. In societies that are masculine such as India men make decisions. While in the US, women have the opportunity to make or influence decisions. Additionally, in masculine societies gender roles are rigid there are domains that are set specifically for men and women. One such society is India where it is a taboo for men to cook and look after children. Nevertheless, in the US both men and women share gender roles (Warner and Joynt, 2002). The fifth cultural dimension is long-term verses short-term orientation. Societies with short-term orientation emphasizes on the past and present. Community members conserve and protect their cultural values. Short-term orientation does not allow change of ideas. India is an example of a short-term orientation society with rigid cultural values (Warner and Joynt, 2002). While the US is a long-term orientation society, it focuses on the future. Long-term orientation societies are tolerant to different cultures and encourage new ideas (Deresky, 2001). The sixth and the last cultural dimension is indulgence against restraint. In societies that encourage indulgence, individuals are allowed to satisfy their needs and desires. Such societies encourage people to have what they want when they want. Societies that practice restraint are more conservative and do not tolerate other cultures. Individuals from this type of society do not adopt new cultures. Western countries practice indulgence while those in countries such as India practice restraint. How issues of culture shock affects work Issues of culture shock affects work in many ways. According to cross-cultural theory, an individual who is experiencing culture shock will not relate well with colleagues at the work place. Lack of good relationship may affect individualâ €™s commitment to work (Hopkins, 2009). Secondly, individuals experiencing culture shock face communication problems. In the work place, lack of proper communication may cause poor feedback. Issues of culture shock may also cause low production (Kirton, and Greene, 2000). In the work place, people work in groups and contribute towards the same goals. Managing culture shock in the work environment Managing culture shock is the first step towards adapting and coping in a new work environment. This is what Bennet refers to as competence in the cross-cultural theory. To overcome culture shock, affected individuals like Steve should do the following. First, develop confidence and always remember about your personal strengths. This is the first step in adapting a new culture as portrayed in the acceptance stage of cross-cultural theory. Secondly, always keep an open mind. Being open minded will help an individual not to judge other based on their culture (Brislin, 2008). Thirdly, alwa ys maintain a sense of humor. Laughing will always help to fight embarrassment, fear, and despair (Brislin, 2008). Furthermore, the affected individual should develop a hobby (Brislin, 2008). One can decide to make new friends in the work environment and so on. Another strategy is being patient. It is not easy to adapt in a new environment. It takes time to be integrated with a new culture (Brislin, 2008). At the adaptation stage, individuals should try to be flexible. Being flexible will facilitate rapid change. Lastly, try to read new resources. Reading books and other articles will help an individual to understand others and appreciate their culture (Brislin, 2008). The procedures portrayed here are what Bennet refers as â€Å"adaptation.† Once individual adapt to the culture they become integrated. Encouraging cultural diversity in the work place In the hospitality sector, cultural diversity helps in ensuring that all people are comfortable working together despite of the ir cultural differences. In order to manage cross-cultural issues, restraints and hotels should make the initiative to help their workers and visitors adapt in a new environment. As such, it is important for organizations like restaurants to develop mechanisms, which will encourage cultural diversity at the work place. Foremost, restaurant and hotel management should provide mentors cross culturally (Schneider and Barsoux, 2003). This is very important because it will help leaders to understand people of different cultures like tourist. This will also enable the management to provide guideline for employees experiencing culture shock. Secondly, the management should provide training seminars to encourage cultural diversity (Brislin, 2008). Training should be conducted to all new employees to familiarize them with the new environment and existing cultural differences. The training should focus on ways of helping the new employees to adapt, accept, and appreciate their new environment and culture. Thirdly, the hospitality management should encourage leaders to prepare and present a cultural profile of their workers (Schneider and Barsoux, 2003). By preparing such a profile, the manager can present it to new workers to familiarize them with other colleagues. This will help in preparing new workers so that they do not become disappointed due to different expectations. Presentation can be done using Power Point. In the work environment, leaders should promote cultural diversity by encouraging sports and other events especially when doing orientation for new employees. During such events, people can share history, stories, and experiences about their cultures. The participants can organize different cultural activities like sports, dances, and story-telling sessions. This will bring people together. It will also help people to understand and appreciate others (Lewis, 1999). In addition to this, hotel managers should craft statements or create posters, which promotes cultural diversity (Schneider and Barsoux, 2003). such posters should be put on all public places and in the offices too. The manager can craft the following statement, â€Å"Be flexible, accept change, and appreciate others.† This message does promote cultural diversity. In case there is sensitive discussion at the work place, the leaders should tactfully intervene and avoid being bias (Marx, 1999). Finally, individuals should develop positive attitude and learn from others. All employees should embrace change and develop a common organization culture. In summary, embracing changes in the hospitality sector is a very important in promoting cultural diversity. The hospitality industry should be more involved in this process because they receive people from different cultural background especially tourist. Management in the hospitality industry should always make the initiative to help employees and diverse customers adapt to new working environment. It is also important that people should accept and appreciate different cultures (Reynolds and Valentine, 2004). In the hospitality industry, the management should provide cross-cultural training courses to enable customers and employees appreciate different cultures. According to cross-cultural theory, patience is needed as it takes time to adapt a different culture. Reference List Brislin, W., 2008. Working with cultural differences: dealing effectively with diversity in  the workplace. Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group. Cornelius, N., 2002. Building Workplace Equality. Ethics, Diversity and Inclusion.  London: Thomson learning. D’Almeida, M., 2007. The effects of cultural diversity in the workplace. Michigan: ProQuest. Dean. T., Leung, K., 2003. Cross-cultural management: foundations and future. Farmham: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. Deresky, H., 2001. International Management: Managing across Borders and Cultures. London: Prentice Hall Dowling, P., J., Welch, D., E., 2008. International Human Resources  Management: Managing People in a Multinational Context. (5th Ed.). London: Thomas Learning. Henderson, G., 1994. Cultural diversity in the workplace: issues and strategies. Westport: Quorum Books. Hopkins, B., 2009. Cultural Differences and Improving Performance: How Values and  Beliefs Influence Organizational Performance. London: Gower Publishing, Ltd. Kirton, G., Greene, A., 2000. The Dynamics of Managing Diversity. Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann. Lewis, R., D., 1999. When Cultures Collide – Managing Successfully Across Cultures  London: Nicholas Brealey Publishing. Marx, E., 1999. Breaking Through Culture Shock. London: Nicholas Brealey Publishing. Reynolds, S., Valentine, D., 2004. Guide to Cross-Cultural Communication (2nd ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Schneider, S., Barsoux, J., 2003. Managing Across Cultures. London: Prentice Hall. Warner, M., Joynt, P., 2002. Managing Across Cultures: Issues and Perspectives  (2nd Ed.). London: Thomson learn ing. Ward, C., 1999. Cross Cultural theory. Cross-cultural Comparisons and Methodological  Issues1 (1) pp 3-8. This essay on Managing cultural diversity in the hospitality industry was written and submitted by user Teagan Mercer to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Interventions For Substance Abuse Amongst Young People The WritePass Journal

Interventions For Substance Abuse Amongst Young People INTRODUCTION Interventions For Substance Abuse Amongst Young People , 20,688 young people accessed substance misuse services, with the majority of this number accessing services for abuse of cannabis (64%) or alcohol (29%) (National Drug Treatment Monitoring System, 2012). Over half of the users were aged 16 to 18 (53%), whilst the rest were aged under 16 (National Drug Treatment Monitoring System, 2012). About two thirds (64%) of the young people who accessed specialist substance misuse services in 2010-11 were male.   Overall, females accessing substance misuse services for young people are younger with 19% of males aged under 15 years compared to 27% of females. Almost   half   of   the   young   people   entering   specialist   substance   misuse   services   are   recorded   as   being   in mainstream   education, such   as   schools   and   further   education   colleges,   followed   by   a   further   19%   in alternative   education, such   as   schooling   delivered   in   a   pupil   referral   unit   or   home   setting.   A further 19% are recorded as not in education or employment.   However, it should be noted that education   and   employment   status   was   reported for only new   young   people   entering   specialist   services   during the year. Therefore, the total will be lower than that of all young people (National Drug Treatment Monitoring System, 2012). Referrals to drug and alcohol treatment services commonly come from youth offending teams, although around 14% of referrals come from mainstream education institutions and 7% are made up of self-referrals. Perhaps surprisingly referrals from the Child and Adolescent Mental Health service (CAHMS) make up only 3% of referrals (National Drug Treatment Monitoring System, 2012). These figures paint a perhaps surprising picture. For example, more young people are referred to specialist drug and alcohol services from mainstream education than specialist educational centres, suggesting that substance abuse could be far rifer amongst young people as might be expected. It could be argued that failure of school authorities to take a more effective preventative approach to drug and alcohol abuse may be contributing to the overall problem. These figures also suggest that immediate attention and intervention must be offered to young people to reduce negative outcomes associated with such high drug use. The statistics reveal that there is a high rate of drug and substance abuse among young people in the UK. The high of level concern about the use of illicit drugs and substances has an effect on health, educational and political discussions in the UK. The government’s national strategy for ten years on drug misuse views young people as a critical priority group in need of quick prevention and treatment intervention (Keegan and Moss, 2008) and recognises the need to improve our understanding of the role played by illicit drugs and substances in the lives of such young people. Educators, health practitioners and policy makers should have comprehensive understanding when it comes to discussions involving the abuse of illicit drugs. For example, the Government must take into account factors such as a lack of understanding amongst young people as to the laws that govern different classes of illegal drugs. Abuse of alcohol and other drugs leads to the destruction of cognitive and emotional development in young people and exposes them to an increased possibility of accidental injury or even death. Finally, there is also a risk of users becoming drug dependent. Abuse of drugs and alcohol by young people can also lead to such negative consequences as coronary heart diseases, lung cancer, AIDS, violent crime, child abuse and unemployment (Gurnack, Atkinson Osgood, 2002). As a result, individuals indulging in the use of alcohol and other drugs incur tremendous costs in their individual lives, their family lives and even their future careers. Society is also not exempt as it pays a price in different ways. For instance, society incurs extra costs in health care, drug and alcohol treatment, law enforcement and supporting the seriously affected families who have been rendered helpless by the situation. There are many reasons why young people become involved in substance abuse. From a sociology perspective it has been argued that the recreational abuse of drugs has become ‘normalised’ (Parker, Measham and Aldridge, 1995) among certain groups of young people. However, Shiner and Newburn (1997) have argued that this theory is reductionist and simplifies the reasons behind a young person’s choice to abuse drugs. In reality, the reasons as to why a young person may begin to abuse drugs can range from having poor adult role models who may also use drugs and alcohol as a way of coping or even a genetic predisposition toward poor self-regulatory behaviours (Spooner and Hall, 2002). Evidence shows that adolescent alcohol and drug abuse is not influenced by a single factor but a large number of factors which are not necessarily confined to any single part of the an adolescent’s world (Connors, Donovan DiClemente, 2001). Environment The environment in which a person lives is very instrumental when it comes to the kind of life that people lead, especially young people. If the environment is for example characterized by pronounced unemployment then young people in such an environment will indulge in activities that make them forget even for a moment the realities of the unemployment situation. If, for example, in their immediate environment young people face the situation of a large supply of drugs and everyone around them is abusing drugs or alcohol, then it is easy for such young people to adopt this kind of lifestyle and become drink or drug abusers. The above explanation shows that the kind of environment a young person stays in has a very direct influence on the habits that are finally adopted by this group of young people. Curiosity Young people naturally have the tendency to try new things and to find out how it feels doing something new.   Young people in the United Kingdom are not an exception and most of them usually try drinking and drugs just to explore and find out what the experience is like. This however results in the young people becoming victims of the consequences that follow (Woo and Keatinge, 2008). The Defence Mechanism A good number of young people use drugs specifically to assist them in easing trauma that may result from unsatisfactory relationships and also physical or emotional abuse that may arise from families or homes that lack happiness. Promotion and Availability There is always a great amount of pressure from advertisement of alcohol over the media. The colourful nature of these promotions is often very enticing and mostly misleading. In the promotions or commercials, alcohol is glamorised hence the young people are influenced to indulge and as a result end up facing the dire consequences. This review will analyse the different interventions utilised when working with young people who abuse drugs and alcohol. These include those carried out by mental health workers, religion-orientated interventions, community based interventions and more psychiatric, medication based interventions. Motivational based interventions are also discussed. Aims and Objectives The aim of this project will be to review and critically evaluate the literature regarding different interventions for young people who abuse drugs and alcohol in the UK. To achieve this aim the project has set the following objectives: To critically examine the interventions for young people (aged 16 to 21) who use drugs and alcohol in UK, with the aim of providing recommendations to improve the care given to the youths who are addicted or at risk of substance abuse. To use secondary data to identify the importance of different interventions in dealing with young people (age 16 to 21) who use drugs and alcohol in the UK. Rationale Interventions for young people aged 16 to 21 who use drugs and alcohol has elicited varied opinions from professionals involved in their care. This has been a result of the often complex and varied needs of young people with substance abuse issues, such as mental health issues (Weaver et al., 2003), social exclusion (Fakhoury and Priebe, 2006) and involvement with the criminal justice system (Hamdi and Knight, 2012; Lundholm et al., 2013). Therefore, there is often disagreement on where the intervention should focus primarily. Various strategies have been advanced to address the involvement of young adults in drugs and substance abuse. For example, medication by mental health nurses in cases of addiction (Bennett and Holloway, 2005). However, due to the variety of interventions available for treating young people with substance abuse disorder, it is important to continuously review the literature in this area and pin point the most effective interventions for treating this group of individuals. [Client must write some words here on why they have chosen this topic (this is essential according to the assignment brief).] SEARCH STRATEGY In preparation for this critical literature review, a number of sources including journals, articles and health text books were used. The search was conducted using computerised databases which enabled access to literature on interventions for young people who abuse drugs and alcohol. Examples of such databases are given below: The Department of Health NHS Evidence (National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence, 2012). PsycINFO (American Psychological Association, 2013). PubMed (National Center for Biotechnology Information, 2013). Google Scholar (Google, 2013). net (EMAP Publishing, 2013). Nursing and Midwifery Council publications (Nursing and Midwifery Council, 2010). Royal College of Psychiatrists useful resources (Royal College of Psychiatrists, 2013). Royal College of Nursing library services (Royal College of Nursing, 2013). These databases contained numerous useful sources such as journal articles, recommendations, guidelines and reviews that were used to gather evidence relevant to interventions for young people who abuse drugs and alcohol. Search terms used included; ‘drugs and substance abuse’, ‘alcohol abuse’, ‘effects of alcohol abuse’, and ‘intervention measures for drugs and substance abuse[1]’. It was not uncommon for a search to produce many results. Therefore, for any search that produced more than 50 results, the first 50 results were observed to pick out the most relevant and interesting studies. The remaining results were not looked at because of time constraints[2]. In addition to searching for relevant sources through online databases, reference lists within articles were also utilised to search for other relevant sources. Inclusion Criteria For an effective review of the subject area, there was a need to select relevant articles to achieve the set objectives. Therefore, only sources relevant to intervention for young people who abuse drugs and alcohol, papers published in the English language and papers published after the year 1999 were selected. Although sources pertaining to studies carried out in the USA were still considered relevant, a priority was given to sources from the UK. If a source had used an adult sample but was still considered relevant and useful then it was considered for inclusion. Exclusion Criteria General papers on drugs and substance abuse not specific to youths, papers published in languages other than English and published before the year 1999 were not included. An example search strategy when using one of these sources, the British Nursing Index, is given below. Search Strategy Example: British Nursing Index (BNI). Through citing the term ‘intervention for young people who abuse drugs and alcohol’, 5,000 articles were gathered without limiters. Limiters such as ‘role of mental health nurses’ and ‘only book and journals concerned with drugs and substance abuse’ were applied to the second search, which reduced the output to 2,034 books and journals. In the third search, additional limiters such as year of publication (2000-2012) were applied, which then reduced the number of books and journals to 734. After all further limiters were applied, such as articles that only used an age group of 16 to 21 years as participants, 70 journals and books were chosen for further analysis. Only 23 articles were considered relevant for this review and analysis due to their in depth exploration of the subject and their meeting of inclusion and exclusion criteria. LITERATURE REVIEW Interventions for substance abuse serve a number of purposes including reducing use of illicit or non-prescribed drugs and curbing problems related to drug misuse, including health, social, psychological and legal problems and last but not least tackling the dangers associated with drug misuse, including the risks of HIV, hepatitis B and C and other blood-borne infections and the risks of drug-related death. Prevention and intervention are usually categorised into primary (direct prevention), secondary (early identification of the problem and subsequent treatment) and tertiary levels (late identification and treatment). Furthermore, interventions are now often categorised into population wide interventions, selective interventions aimed at only high risk groups and early interventions for at-risk groups (Cuijpers, 2003). The nature of interventions has also evolved over the years. Twenty to thirty years ago the emphasis was on providing young people with information and buffering moral values whereas in the more modern era, a social dimension has been added and young people are taught resistance skills to avoid peer pressure (Gilvarry, 2000). Alcohol related deaths are rife in the UK, with 8,748 alcohol related deaths in the UK in 2011 (Office for National Statistics, 2013). However, there were 1,883 noted drug related deaths in 2010, a decrease of 299 from 2009 (Ghodse et al. 2012). These statistics reflect the importance of interventions for drug abusers, which could be protecting some individuals from the most extreme consequence of substance abuse. Mental Health Interventions Research has evidenced that Major Depressive Disorder (American Psychiatric Association, 1994) is often co-morbid in young people who abuse drugs and alcohol (Sutcliffe et al., 2009; Marshall and Werb, 2010; Marmorstein, Iacono and Malone, 2010). Due to the potentially devastating effects of depression at both the individual (Galaif et al., 2011; Petrie and Brook, 2011) and societal level (Sobocki et al., 2006), substance abuse is viewed as something that must be dealt with swiftly and effectively. This co-morbidity of mental illness and substance abuse means that mental health nurses are often involved in interventions with young people. Mental illness is a psychological anomaly that is generally associated with distress or disability that is usually not considered to be a component of an individual’s normal development (Nursing and Midwifery Council, 2008). Despite the fact that standard guideline criteria are used all over the world to define mental illness, diagnosis and i ntervention is often incredibly complex, especially when substance abuse is also a factor. Community services are offered to people with such problems through assessment by different psychiatrists and clinical psychologists, or sometimes social workers. All these professionals use methods of observation and inquiries through asking questions to help establish any given patient’s condition. Mental health nurses are often at the front line in providing care and support in both hospitals and the community. In the United Kingdom, mental health nurses play a great role in taking care of young people with mental disorders and mental illnesses that may have developed as a result of substance abuse (Department of Health, 2012). They offer counselling services in order to help people focus on their goals or outcomes; help people develop strategies that support self-care and enable individuals and their families to take responsibility for and participate in decisions about their health. They provide a range of services including education, research and knowledge sharing and e vidence informed practices. They also perform the role of addiction counsellors in order to provide intake co-ordination, assessment, treatment and follow-up care for youths with addictions, mental illness and mental health problems using common assessment tools. They can provide health promotion, prevention and early detection of problematic substance use; use core competencies and knowledge in addictions and a full range of withdrawal management services including detoxification services using best practice treatment protocols, outreach, prescribing, counselling, and harm reduction However, mental health nurses are often faced with challenges that hinder them from successfully achieving their goals. Challenges include non co-operation of the patients’ families and also the complex nature of patient problems (Nursing and Midwifery Council, 2008). In a comprehensive review, RachBeisel, Scott and Dixon (1999) found that there was a much higher prevalence of substance abuse amongst individuals with mental illness and that the course of mental illness was significantly negatively influenced by the abuse of illegal substances. These findings highlight a key issue in mental health interventions for young people who abuse substances, namely that it is important to determine the relationship between the substance abuse and mental illness before allocating a suitable intervention. For example, if a young person has developed a mental illness as a result of abusing substances, a mental health focused intervention may not be appropriate as it would not be treating the root of the problem or the reason why the young person started to use illegal substances in the first place. Psychiatric and Medical Interventions Psychiatric and medical based interventions refer to the treatment of substance abuse in a young person by a psychiatrist who is medically trained and able to provide an additional dimension of treatment than a psychologist or mental health worker is able to. An example of this is the prescription of methadone, a synthetic opiate that is used to help young people withdraw safely from heroin use. The National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (2007) recommend a psycho-social approach when treating individuals with substance abuse disorder and advocate the use of medication. However, use of medication with young people who are suffering from substance abuse disorders should be used with care due to the risk of dangerous side effects (Webster, 2005). Motivational Interventions Motivational interventions are brief interventions used by professionals to enhance a young person’s motivation to change and stop abusing substances (Tevyaw and Monti, 2004). In a review of the effectiveness of motivational interviewing (Smedslund et al., 2011) it was found that although motivational interviewing techniques were more effective at reducing the extent of future substance abuse when compared to no intervention, the technique was no more effective when compared to other types of intervention. For example, motivational interviewing was no better at reducing extent of substance abuse that simply assessing a patient and providing feedback. The authors reviewed 59 studies that had been accessed from a range of online databases. This is a reasonable number of studies as the body of literature on motivational interviewing as an intervention for substance abuse is quite limited. However, the authors failed to collect evidence on other measures of efficacy such as a redu ction in future criminal prosecution for drug offences or improvement in overall quality of life. The efficacy of motivational interviewing has been studied in young people in particular by McCambridge and Strang (2003). 200 young people from inner city London were randomly allocated to either a motivational interviewing condition or a non-intervention education control condition. All participants were aged between 16 and 20 and were using illegal drugs at the time of the study. The motivational interviewing intervention consisted of a brief, one hour face-to-face interview and self-reported changes in the use of cigarettes, cannabis, alcohol and other drugs was used as the outcome measure both immediately after the interview and at a three month follow up point. It was found that in comparison to the control group, young people who received motivational interviewing as a brief intervention reduced their use of cigarettes, alcohol and cannabis. Although these results initially seem in favour of motivational interviewing as an intervention for young people who have substance abuse issues, it should be noted that self-report measures are very open to bias and it is possible that the reported reduced use of drugs and alcohol was much higher than the actual reduction in use. This was reflected in a follow up study by the same authors 12 months later (McCambridge and Strang, 2005) where it was found that the difference in reduction in substance use between the experimental and control groups found after three months had completely disappeared. This result suggests that although motivational interviewing may be an effective short term intervention for treating young people with substance abuse issues, it has no enduring effectiveness over a long period of time. This may be due to a lack of follow-up support for young people and the brief nature of the intervention. Community-Based Interventions Community drug and alcohol services offer interventions such as comprehensive assessment and recovery care planning, support and care co-ordination,   advice and information, stabilisation, counselling and relapse prevention and motivational interviewing (Nursing and Midwifery Council, 2008). Hepatitis B vaccinations, Hepatitis C testing and referral to treatment for these diseases, are also essential due to the risk of infections through needle sharing. Like most interventions, these community services are aimed at promoting recovery from addiction and enabling the achievement of individual goals, helping individuals to remain healthy, until, with appropriate support, they can achieve a drug-free life. This may involve stabilising service users on prescribed substitute medication to improve withdrawal symptoms and to reduce cravings. In their review of community-based interventions, Jones et al. (2006) found a limit on the effectiveness of such interventions, especially when it ca me to long term and enduring effect for reducing substance abuse. The results suggested that a change in community-based interventions was needed. Morgenstern et al. (2001) found a very high level of satisfaction among community based substance abuse counsellors who had received training in delivering cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) to clients. This suggests that perhaps one way of increasing the effectiveness of community-based interventions would be to equip community-based workers with a wider range of skills with which they can help young people suffering from substance abuse. Supporting this recommendation was a study by Waldron and Kaminer (2004) who found that use of CBT was associated with clinically significant reductions in substance abuse amongst adolescents. Religious Interventions Some interventions are religious in nature. For instance, the United Methodist Church follows a holistic approach which stresses prevention, involvement, treatment, community organization, and advocacy of abstinence. The church could be argued to have a progressive role by offering a spiritual perception on the issue of substance abuse. Another popular religious based approach to tacking alcohol abuse in particular is the 12-step program offered by Alcoholics Anonymous. Individuals are commonly encouraged or possibly even required cut any acquaintances with friends who still use alcohol.  The 12-step programme motivates addicts to stop consuming alcohol or other drugs and also it helps to scrutinize and modify the habits related to their  cause of addiction. Numerous programs accentuate that recovery is a long-lasting process with no culmination. For drugs which are legal such as alcohol, complete abstinence is recommended rather than attempts at  moderation which may cause rel apses. Fiorentine and Hillhouse (2000) found that participants in a 12-step program stayed in future treatment for a much longer period of time and were much more likely to be able to complete a 24-week intervention programme. It was also found that a combination of a 12-step program and an alternative substance abuse intervention was more effective than either treatment alone. This suggests that providing young people with interventions in isolation may not be the most effective way of helping them overcome their substance abuse. However, literature on religious based interventions tends to focus on adults and although still applicable to the treatment of young people in many ways, young people may be put off by the religious nature of these 12-step programmes and may be intimidated by the group nature of the treatment. In support of this criticism, Engle and MacGowan (2009) found that only two out of 13 adolescent group treatments of substance abuse could be categorised as showing potential efficacy in treating young people with these problems. Family-Oriented Interventions It has been argued that the family has a central role in both increasing and reducing the risk of problem behaviours in young people such as substance abuse (Vimpani and Spooner, 2003). A review by Velleman, Templeton and Copello (2005) echoed this view that the family can have both a positive or negative impact on a young person’s risk of substance abuse. Kumpfer, Alvarado and Whiteside (2003) have identified that support for families based within the home, family education and skills training, improving parental behaviour and time-limited family therapy are all highly effective forms of family-based interventions for young people with substance abuse issues. However, as research has shown that the family can also play a role in increasing risk of substance abuse, professionals must be confident that family therapy is suitable and not run the risk of worsening a young person’s relationship with their family and in turn worsening their substance abuse. School-Based Interventions Education about the use of drugs and alcohol within schools has been advocated as a preventative intervention for young people at risk of substance abuse disorder. Fletcher, Bonell and Hargreaves (2008) found that interventions focused around encouraging a positive school environment and improving young peoples’ relationships was associated with a reduction in risky substance abuse. However, part of this conclusion was based on the review of observational studies, which are open to bias and subjectivity. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE RECOMMENDATIONS This essay has reviewed a number of sources regarding the efficacy and suitability of certain interventions for young people with substance abuse issues. A key limitation of much of the literature is the tendency to put emphasis on drugs as a generic material with very little distinction is made between different types of illicit substances. With the very varied effects of different drugs on the user, it could be argued that the specific reasons for a young person’s drug usage will have an impact on the effects that a drug has. For example, stimulant drugs will most likely be used for nervous system arousal, while other drugs such as alcohol and cannabis are sedatives and cause nervous system depression. These kinds of drugs can be termed as instrumental drugs since the reasons behind their usage correspond to the effect of the different kind of drug that is used (Brick, 2008). Therefore, it might be useful for professionals to base their interventions on the types of substanc e abused. From the above literature review it is evident that there is need for mental healthcare especially to help young people who are adversely affected by the use of drugs and other substance abuse. Some youths suffer from psychiatric disorders as a result of indulgence in drugs and substance abuse. Others experience mental problems that need serious rehabilitation measures taken in order to counter such problems hence emphasis should be laid on the care that is to be given to the young people affected by any of the above problems caused by the abuse of drugs and other substances. Therefore, mental health interventions remain an important intervention for young people. A number of recommended adjustments in healthcare to cater for young people struggling with abuse have been identified. For example, there should be an increased application of various musical strategies in helping patients suffering from various mental health conditions as a result of substance abuse (Connors, Donovan DiClemente, 2001), as this kind of intervention appears to be lacking in use with young people. Another main limitation in research that aims to measure the effectiveness of intervention measures is the lack of control that researchers have. It would be considered unethical if young people with drug abuse problems were randomly allocated to intervention procedures, especially if one was chosen as a control condition and was not believed to be effective in treating substance abuse issues. This means that it can be difficult to compare intervention methods. Another limitation lies in the types of measure researchers’ use to measure effectiveness of intervention methods. For example, a self-report measure may be used to assess whether young people have either stopped or at least reduced their intake of illicit substances. This type of questionnaire may also be used to see if the young people are seeing a positive result from receiving an intervention. However, self-report measures are open to social desirability bias meaning that many young people may fabricate their answer s in order to either please the professionals who are involved with helping them or to conceal ongoing substance abuse. The review has also emphasized the causes or triggers of alcohol and drug abuse among young people in the United Kingdom showing that the environment a young person stays in is one of the greatest factors that lead to indulgence in alcohol, drug and substance abuse. Other factors like enjoyment, peer pressure, promotions in the media and rebellion are also causes of alcohol, drug and substance abuse among the youth in the United Kingdom (Gurnack, Atkinson and Osgood, 2002). More focus on these root causes could help improve prevention and reduce the need for later intervention, which has a poor track record of success. Finally, there is need according to the literature review to improve media perception of mental health patients in order to help alleviate the conditions of psychiatric disorders that are caused by the indulgence of young people in alcohol, drug and substance abuse (Berglund and Thelander, 2003). This doesn’t indicate failure in the mental nursing services but it just implies that mental health workers and psychiatrists need reinforcement in order to positively contribute to successful intervention (Califano, 2007).   This suggestion is based on the need for a more holistic approach when it comes to treating young people with substance abuse issues, where the effect on all areas of their life including their mental health must be taken into account during intervention. Strengths of this Critical Literature Review Secondary data was reviewed in this project, which provided larger scope on choices of information for the project. In addition this review was able to identify key areas for improvement of health condition interventions for youths affected by substance abuse. Limitations of this Critical Literature Review This literature review was small in scale, since word and time limits were set. Although 23 articles were selected for review, this number could have been improved. 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Marmorstein, N.R., Iacono, W.G. and Malone, S.M. (2010) Longitudinal associations between depression and substance dependence from adolescence through early adulthood. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 107(2), pp. 154-160. Marshall, B.D.L. and Werb, D. (2010) Health outcomes associated with methamphetamine use among young people: a systematic review. Addiction, 105(6), pp. 991-1002. McCambridge, J. and Strang, J. (2003) The efficacy of single-session motivational interviewing in reducing drug consumption and perceptions of drug-related risk and harm among young people: result from a multi-site cluster randomised trial. Addiction, 99, pp. 39-52. McCambridge, J. and Strang, J. (2005) Deterioration over time in effect of Motivational Interviewing in reducing drug consumption and related risk among young people. Addiction, 100(4), pp. 470-478. National Center for Biotechnology Information (2013) PubMed. [online] Available at: ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed [Accessed 26 March 2013]. 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APPENDICES Appendix A Search Term: â€Å"Drugs and substance abuse.†    Source Number of Relevant Hits Department of Health 0 NHS Evidence 5597 PsychINFO 22 PubMed 2337 Google Scholar 1,070,000 Nursing.net 4435 Nursing and Midwifery Council 59 Royal College of Psychiatrists 477 Royal College of Nursing library services 1,753    Search Term: â€Å"Alcohol Abuse.†    Source Number of Relevant Hits Department of Health 0 NHS Evidence 6893 PsychINFO 92 PubMed 87,995 Google Scholar 1,480,000 Nursing.net 1760 Nursing and Midwifery Council 138 Royal College of Psychiatrists 629 Royal College of Nursing library services 1,654 Search Term: â€Å"Effects of alcohol abuse.†    Source Number of Relevant Hits Department of Health 0 NHS Evidence 5476 PsychINFO 31 PubMed 21,363 Google Scholar 1,430,000 Nursing.net 8502 Nursing and Midwifery Council 40 Royal College of Psychiatrists 531 Royal College of Nursing library services 2,590    Search term: â€Å"Intervention measures for drugs and substance abuse.†    Source Number of Relevant Hits Department of Health 0 NHS Evidence 3169 PsychINFO 3 PubMed 215 Google Scholar 174,000 Nursing.net 7672 Nursing and Midwifery Council 23 Royal College of Psychiatrists 302 Royal College of Nursing library services 3,250       Appendix B    Title First Author Publication Year 1 Drug treatment and twelve-step program participation: the additive effects of integrated recovery activities. Fiorentine 2000 2 A critical review of adolescent substance abuse group treatments. Engle 2009 3 Co-occuring severe mental illness and substance use disorders: A review of recent research. RachBeisel 1999 4 Statistics for young people in specialist drug and alcohol services in England 2011-12 National Drug Treatment Monitoring System 2012 5 Substance abuse in young people. Gilvarry 2000 6 The efficacy of single-session motivational interviewing in reducing drug consumption and perceptions of drug-related risk and harm among young people: results from a multi-site cluster randomised trial. McCambridge 2004 7 The role of the family in preventing and interviewing with substance use and misuse: a comprehensive review of family intervention, with a focus on young people. Velleman 2005 8 School effects on young people’s drug use: a systematic review of intervention and observational studies. Fletcher 2008 9 A review of community-based interventions to reduce substance misuse among vulnerable and disadvantaged young people. Jones 2006 10 Motivational enhancement and other brief interventions for adolescent substance abuse: foundations, applications and evaluations. Tevyaw 2004 11 Motivational interviewing for substance abuse. Smedslund 2011 12 On the learning curve: the emerging evidence supporting cognitive-behavioural therapies for adolescent substance abuse. Waldron 2004 13 Testing the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral treatment for substance abuse in a community setting: within treatment and posttreatment findings. Morgenstern 2001 14 Family-based interventions for substance use and misuse prevention. Kumpfer 2003 15 Deterioration over time in effect of Motivational Interviewing in reducing drug consumption and related risk among young people. McCambridge 2005 16 Drug misuse: psychosocial interventions: full guideline. National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence 2007 17 Substance abuse treatment and the stages of change: Selecting and planning interventions. Connors 2001

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